
•5V^ > ' w * r * 







































THE 


Farmer’s Encyclopedia * 


* * * and Business Guide 


A REPOSITORY OF PRACTICAL 
KNOWLEDGE 


For Housekeepers, Farmers, Stock-raisers, Dairymen, Poultrymen, 
Bee-keepers, Nurserymen, Trappers, Miners, Artisans, 
Mechanics and .Business Men. 


EMOTED BY 

K. L. ARMSTRONG 


With Numerous Illustrations, and 2,500 Useful Tables, Tested 
Recipes, Trade Secrets, Etc. 



INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHING CO. 

40-42-44 N. Fourth St., Philada. 185-7-9 Van Buren St., Chicago. 








4C /oS 

,.S vq 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1897, 
By M. DOUGHERTY, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 


j TH * library] 

\OW CONGRESS 

1WASHI NGTQN, 





This rule to all when I am dead: 

Be sure you're right , then go ahead . •jlfpT 

—Davy Crockett. 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Handy Facts to Settle Many Arguments. 

London plague in 1665. 

Telephone invented, 1861. 

There are 2,750 languages. 

Two persons die every second. 

Sound moves 743 miles per hour. 

Chinese invented paper, 170 B.C. 

A square mile contains 640 acres. 

. A barrel of pork weighs 200 pounds. 

Hawks can fly 150 miles in one hour. 

Watches were first constructed in 1476. 

Chinese in United States in 1880, 105,613. 

Rome was founded by Romulus, 752 B.C. 

Gold was discovered in California in 1848. 

Phonograph invented by T. A. Edison, 1877. 

The first balloon ascended from Lyons, France, 17S3. 

The first fire insurance office in America, Boston, 1724. 

Jet is found along the coast of Yorkshire, Eng., near Whitby. 

Napoleon I. crowned emperor, 1S04; died at St. Helena, 1820. 

Electric light invented by Lodyguin and Kossloff, at London, 
1S74. 

Harvard is the oldest college in the United States; established 
in 163S. 

War declared with Great Britain, June 19, 1812; peace, Feb. 
18,'1815. > C 

Until 1776 cotton spinning was performed by the hand spin¬ 
ning-wheel. 

Measure 209 feet on each side and you will have a square acr«j 
within an inch. 

Postage stamps first came into use in England in the year 1840; 
in the United States, in 1S47. 

The highest range of mountains are the Himalayas, the mean 
elevation being from 16,000 to iS,ooo feet. 

The largest inland sea is the Caspian, between Europe and 
Asia, being 700 miles long and 270 miles wide. 

The term “Almighty Dollar” originated with Washington 
Irving, as a satire on the American love for gain, 

3 











GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE . 


Envelopes were first used in 1839. 

Telescopes were invented in 1590. 

Iron horseshoes were made in 481. 

A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds. 

A hand (horse measure) is four inches. 

A rifle ball moves 1,000 miles per hour. 

First steamer crossed the Atlantic, 1819. 

Assassination of Lincoln, April 14, 1865. 

German empire re-established, Jan. 18, 1871. 

Storm clouds move thirty-six miles an hour. 

First subscription library, Philadelphia, 1731* 

Dark Ages, from the 6th to the 14th century. 

The Latin tongue became obsolete about 580. 

The great London fire occurred Sept. 26, 1666. 

The. value of a ton of pure gold is $602,799.21. 

Ether was first used for surgical purposes in 1844. 

Ignatius Loyola founded the order of Jesuits, 1541. 

First authentic use of organs, 755; in England, 951. 

The first newspaper advertisement appeared in 1652. 

Cork is the bark taken from a species of the oak tree. 
Benjamin Franklin used the first lightning rods, 1752. 

Glass windows (colored) were used in the 8th century. 
Authentic history of China commenced 3,000 years B.C. 
Introduction of homoeopathy into the United States, 1825. 
Spectacles were invented by an Italian in the 13th century. 
Medicine was introduced into Rome from Greece, 200 B.C. 
First electric telegraph, Paddington to Brayton, Eng., 183^. 
The Chaldeans were the first people who worked in metals. 
First life insurance, in London, 1772; in America, Phila., 1812. 
Egyptian pottery is the oldest known; dates from 2,000 B.C. 
Julius Csesar invaded Britain, 55 B.C.; assassinated, 44 B.C. 
Soap was first manufactured in England in the 16th century. 
The largest free territorial government is the United States. 
First photographs produced in England, 1802; perfected, 1841. 
First marine insurance, A. D. 533; England, 1598; America, 
1721. 

Professor Oersted, Copenhagen, discovered electro-magnetism, 
in 1819. 

First American express, New York to Boston—W. F. 
Harnden. 

Glass windows were first introduced into England in the 

8th century. 

Chicago is little more than fifty years old, and is the eighteenth 
city of the world. 

Glass was made in Egypt, 3,000 B.C.; earliest date of trans¬ 
parent glass, 719 B.C. 

First public schools in America were established in the New 

England States about 1642. 


4 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


First Atlantic cable operated, 18158. 

A barrel of rice weighs 600 pounds. 

The first steel pen was made in 1830. 

Light moves 187,000 miles per second. 

Slow rivers flow seven miles per hour. 

The first lucifer match was made in 1S29. 

A storm moves thirty-six miles per hour. 

Battles of Bunker Hill and Lexington, 1775. 

The largest island in the world is Australia. 

First musical notes used, 1338; printed, 1502. 

Kerosene was first used for illuminating in 1826. 

National banks first established in United States, 1816. 

Slavery in the United States was begun at Jamestown in 1619 

First postoflice established, between Vienna and Brussels. 
1516. 

The Alexandrian Library contained 400,000 valuable books 
47 B.C. 

Moscow, Russia, has the largest bell in the world, 432,00c 
pounds. 

The highest denomination of United States legal tender notes 
is $10,000. 

The electric eel is only found in the northern rivers of South 
America. 

Columbus discovered America, Oct. 12, 1492; the Northmen 
A. D. 985. 

The first theater in the United States was at Williamsburg 
Va., 1752. 

Congress declared war with Mexico, May 13, 1846; closec 
Feb. 2, 1848. 

The first complete sewing machine was patented by Elias 
Howe, Jr., in 1S46. 

London is the largest city in the world, containing a popula¬ 
tion of 4,764,312 persons. 

First cotton raised in the United States was in Virginia, in 
1621; first exported, 1747. 

The largest university is Oxford, in England. It consists ol 
twenty-one colleges and five halls. 

First sugar-cane cultivated ii\^ the United States, near New 
Orleans, 1751; first sugar-mill, 1758. * 

First telegraph in operation in America was between Wash* 
ington and Baltimore, May 27, 1S44. 

The first illumination with gas was in Cornwall, Eng., 1792; 
in the United States, at Boston, 1822. 

Printing was known in China in the 6th century; introduced 
into England about 1474; America, 1536. 

The great wall of China, built 200 B.C., is 1,250 miles in length, 
20 feet high, and 25 feet thick at the base. 

Glass mirrors first made by Venetians in the 13th century. 
Polished metal was used before that time. 

Meerschaum means “froth of the sea.” It is white and soft 
when dug from the earth, but soon hardens. 

5 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


America was discovered in 1492. 

A firkin of butter weighs 56 pounds. 

A span is ten and seven-eighths inches. 

Pianoforte invented in Italy about 1710. 

The value of a ton of silver is $37,704.84. 

First watches made in Nuremberg, 1476. 

A hurricane moves eighty miles per hour. 

Modern needles first came into use in 1545. 

Electricity moves 288,000 miles per second. 

French and Indian War in America, 1754. 

The first horse railroad was built in 1826-7. 

The average human life is thirty-three years. 

Coaches were first used in England in 1569. 

French Revolution, 1789; Reign of Terror, 1793. 

$1,000,000 gold coin weigh 3,685.8 lbs. avoirdupois. 

Mormons arrived at Salt Lake Valley, Utah, July 24, 1847., 
Experiments in electric lighting, by Thomas A. Edison, 1878-80. 
Daguerre and Nieper invented the process of daguerreotype, 
,839- 

The largest cavern in the world is the Mammoth Care, Ken- 

ticky. 

First American library founded at Harvard College, Cam¬ 
bridge, 1638. < x 

The first iron ore discovered in this country was found in Vir¬ 
ginia in 1715. 

“Bravest of the Brave” was the title given to Marshal Ney at 
?riedland, 1807. 

The first steam engine on this continent was brought from 
England in 1753. 

The most extensive park is Deer Park in Denmark. It con¬ 
tains 4,200 acres. 

Books in their present form were invented bv Attalus, king of 
Pergamus, in 887. 

Robert Raikes established the first Sunday-school, at Glou¬ 
cester, Eng., 17S1. 

Albert Durer gave the world a prophecy of future wood 
engraving in 1527. 

St. Augustine, oldest city in the United States, founded by 

the Spaniards, 1565. 

Jamestown, Va., founded, 1607; first permanent English set¬ 
tlement in America. 

The first volunteer fire company in the United States was 
at Philadelphia, 1736. 

Oberlin College, Ohio, was the first in the United States that 

admitted female students. 

The first knives were used in England, and the first wheeled 
carriages in France in 1559. 

The largest park in the United States is Fairmount, at Phila¬ 
delphia, and contains 2,740 acres. 

6 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


The highest natural bridge in the world is at Rockbridge, Vir¬ 

ginia, being 200 feet high to the bottom of the arch. 

The largest circulation of paper money is that of the United 

States, being 700 millions, while Russia has 670 millions. 

The largest insurance company in the world is the Mutual 

Life of New York City, having cash assets of $108,000,000. 

The largest empire in the world is that of Great Britain, being 

8,557,658 square miles, and more than a sixth part of the globe. 

The first electrical signal ever transmitted between Europe and 

America passed over the Field submarine cable on Aug. 5, 1858. 

The longest tunnel in the world is St. Gothard, on the line of 

the railroad between Lucerne and Milan, being 9% miles in length. 

The loftiest active volcano is Popocatapetl. It is 17,784 feet 

high, and has a crater three miles in circumference and 1,000 feet deep. 

Burnt brick were known to have been used in building the 

Tower of Babel. They were introduced into England by the Romans. 

The most remarkable echo known is that in the castle of Simon- 

etta, two miles from Milan. It repeats the echo of a pistol sixty times. 

The largest volcano in the world is Etna. Its base is 90 miles 
in circumference; its cone 11,000 feet high. Its first eruption occurred 474 
B.C. 

The largest tree in the world, as yet discovered, is in Tulare 
County, California. It is 275 feet high, and 106 feet in circumference at it$ 
base. 

The largest desert is Sahara, in Northern Africa. Its length 
is 3,000 miles and breadth 900 miles; having an area of 2,000,000 square 
miles. 

The largest suspension bridge is the Brooklyn. The length of 
the main span is 1,595 f° e t 6 inches. The entire length of the bridge is 
5,989 feet. 

The first deaf and dumb asylum was founded in England, by 
Thomas Braidwood, 1760; and the first in the United States was at Hart¬ 
ford, 1817. 

The largest diamond in the world is the Braganza, bein^ a 

6 art of the Portuguese jewels. It weighs i,8So carats. It was found in 
Brazil in 1741. 

The grade of titles in Great Britain stands in the following 
order frqpi the highest: A Prince, Duke, Marquis, Ear) } Viscount, Baron, 
Baronet, Knight. 

The “Valley of Death,” in the island of Java, is simply th« 
crater of an extinct volcano, filled with carbonic-acid gas. It is half a mile 
in circumference. 

-The city of Amsterdam, Holland, is built upon piles driven 
into the ground. It is intersected by nu merous canals, crossed by nearly 
three hundred bridges. 

Coal was used as fuel in England as early as 852, and in 1234 
the first charter to dig for it was granted by Henry HI. to the inhabitants 
of Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Tobacco was discovered in San Domingo in 1496; afterwards 
by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. It was introduced in France in 1560, 
and into England in 1583. 

The present national colors of the United States were not 
adopted by Congress until 1777. The flag was fi*st used by Washington at 
Cambridge, January 1,1776. 


7 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Paris was known as Lutetia until 1184, when the name of thfc 

great French capital was changed to that which it has borne ever since. 

The longest span of wire in the world is used for a telegraph 
in India over the river Ristuah. It is over 6,000 feet, and is stretched be¬ 
tween two hills, 1,200 feet high. 

The largest library in the world is in Paris, founded by Louis 
XIV. It contains 1,400,000 volumes, 175,000 manuscripts, 300,000 maps and 
charts, and 150,000 coins and medals. 

The tallest man was John Hale, of Lancashire, England, who 
was nine feet six inches in height. His hand was seventeen inches long 
and eight and one-half inches broad. 

In round numbers, the weight of $1,000,000 in standard gold 
coin is 1% tons; standard silver coin, 26% tons; subsidiary silver coin, 25 
f*ons; minor coin, 5-cent nickel, 100 tons. 

The part of United States territory most recently acquired 

is the island of San Juan, near Vancouver’s Island. It was evacuated by 
England at the close of November, 1873. 

The highest monument in the world is the Washington monu¬ 
ment, being 555 feet. The highest structure of any kind is the Eiffel 
Tower, Paris, finished in 1889 and 989 feet high. 

It is claimed that crows, eagles, ravens and swans live to be 100 
years old; herons, 59; parrots, 60; pelicans and geese, 50; skylarks,30; spar¬ 
row hawks,40; peacocks, canaries and cranes, 24. 

The greatest cataract in the world is Niagara, the height of the 
American Falls being 165 feet. The highest fall of water in the world is 
that of the Yosemite in California, being 2,550 feet. ■> 

The most ancient catacombs are those of the Theban kings, 
begun 4,000 years ago. The catacombs of Rome contain the remains of 
about 6,000,000 human beings; those of Paris, 3,000,000. 

The quickest passage ever made across the Atlantic was that 
)f the steamer Etruria, of the Cunard line, being 6 daj'S 5 hours and 30 
minutes from New York to Queenstown ; the distance being 2,850 miles. 

There has been no irregularity in the recurrence of leap year 
ivery four years since 1800, and will be none until 1900, which will be a 
common year, although it will come fourth after the preceding leap year. 

The first English newspaper was the English Mercury , issued 
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and was issued in the shape of a 
pamphlet. The Gazette of Venice was the original model of the modern 
newspaper. 

The Mormon Church in Utah shows a membership of 127,294 
—23,000 families. The church has 12 apostles, 5S patriarchs, 3,885 seventies, 
3,153 high priests, 11,000 elders, 1,500 bishops, and 4,400 deacons, being an 
office for each six persons. 

The seven sages flourished in Greece in the 6th century B.C. 
They were renowned for their maxims of life, and as the authors of the 
mottoes inscribed in the Delphian Temple. Their names are: Solon, Chilo, 
Pittacus, Bias, Periander, Cleobolus, and Thales. 

The largest stationary engine in the world is at the zinc mines 
at Friedenville, Penn. The number of gallons of water raised every 
minute is 17,500. The driving wheels are 35 feet in diameter and weigh 40 
tons each. The cylinder is no inches in diameter. 

The largest number of cattle ever received in one year was 
that of Chicago in the year 1884, being 1,874,984 beeves, 30,223 calves, 5,640,- 
625 hogs, 749,917 sheep, and 15,625 horses. It required 9,000 trains of 31 carf 
each, which, if coupled together, would reach 2,146 miles. 

8 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


The estimated number of Christians in the world is over 40S,- 
oco,ooo; of Buddhists, 420,000,000; of the followers of Brahma, 180,000,000; 
of Mohammedans, 150,000,000; of Jews, 8,000,000; of atheists, deists, and in- 
iidels, 85,000,000; of pagans, 50,000,000, and of the 1,100 other minor creeds, 
123,000,000. 

The largest producing farm in the world lies in the southwest 
corner of Louisiana, owned by a northern syndicate. It runs one hundred 
miles north and south. The immense tract is divided into convenient pas¬ 
tures, with stations of ranches every six miles. The fencing alone cost 
nearly $50,000. 

The “Seven Wonders of the World” are seven most remarka¬ 
ble objects of the ancient world. They are: The Pyramids of Egpyt, 
Pharos of Alexandria, Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Temple of 
Diana at Ephesus, the Statue of the Olympian Jupiter, Mausoleum of Arte¬ 
misia, and Colossus of Rhodes. 

A “monkey wrench” is not so named because it is a handy 

thing to monkey with, or for any kindred reason. “Monkey” is not its 
name at all, but “Moncky.” Charles Moncky, the inventor of it, sold his 
patent for $2,000, and invested the money in a house in Williamsburgh, Kings 
County, N. Y., where he now lives. 

The Union arch of the Washington Aqueduct is the largest 
in the world, being 220 feet; 20 feet in excess of the Chester arch across the 
Dee in England, 68 feet longer than that of the London Bridge ; 92 feet 
longer than that at Neuilly on the Seine, and 100 feet longer than that of 
Waterloo Bridge. The height of the Washington arch is 100 feet. 

The largest ship ever built, the Great Eastern, recently broken 
to pieces and sold to junk dealers, was designed and constructed by Scott 
Russell, at Maxwell, on the Thames. Work on the giant vessel was com¬ 
menced in May, 1854. She was successfully launched January 13, 185S. The 
launching alone occupied the time from November 3, 1857, until the date 
above given. Her total length was 600 feet; breadth, 118 feet; total weight 
when launched, 12,000 tons. Her first trip of any consequence was made to 
New York in 1859-60. 

In 1775 there were only twenty-seven newspapers published 

in the United States. Ten years later, in 1785, there were seven published 
in the English language in Philadelphia alone, of which one was a daily. 
The oldest newspaper published in Philadelphia at the time of the Federal 
convention was the Pennsylvania Gazette , established by Samuel Keimer, 
in 1728. The second newspaper in point of age was the Pennsylvania 
Journal , established in 1742 by William Bradford, whose uncle, Andrew 
Bradford, established the first newspaper in Pennsylvania, the American 
Weekly Mercury , in 1719. Next in age, but the first in importance, was the 
Pennsylvania Packet , established by John Dunlap in 1771. In 17S4 it became 
a daily, being the first daily newspaper printed on this continent. 

Statistics of twenty leading libraries in this country show that, 
of over $500,000 spent, a little over $170,000 spent was devoted to books, while 
other expenses consumed $358,000. In the Mercantile Library of New York 
city it costs 14 cents to circulate a volume; in the Astor, 14% cents are spent 
on each volume, or 27 cents on each reader; in Columbia College Library, 
21 cents per reader; in the Library Company of Philadelphia, 26 cents per 
volume, or 10 cents per head. The largest library in the world is the Na¬ 
tional Library of France, founded by Louis XIV., which now contains 1,- 
400,000 books, 300,000 pamphlets, 175,000 manuscripts, 300,000 maps and charts, 
150,000 coins and medals, 1,300,000 engravings, and 100,000 portraits. The 
Library of Congress is the largest in this country, as it contained 570,000 
volumes in 1886. The Mercantile Library of Philadelphia was the seventh 
in point of size in this country in the same year. There are in the United 
States 5,338 libraries. 


9 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


The most extensive mines in the world are those of Freiberg, 

Saxony. They were begun in the twelfth century, and in 1835 the galleries, 
taken collectively, had reached the unprecedented length of 123 miles. A 
new gallery, begun in 1838, had reached a length of eight miles at the tfme 
of the census of 1878. The deepest perpendicular mining shaft in the world 
is located at Prizilram, Bohemia. It is a lead mine; it was begun 1832. 
January, 1880, it was 3,280 feet deep. The deepest coal mine in the world is 
near Tourney, Belgium; it is 3,542 feet in depth, but, unlike the lead mine 
mentioned above, it is not perpendicular. The deepest rock-salt bore in the 
world is near Berlin, Prussia; it is 4,185 feet deep. The deepest hole ever 
bored into the earth is the artesian well at Potsdam, which is 5,500 feet in 
depth. The deepest coal mines in England are the Dunkirk collieries of 
Lancashire, which are 2,824 feet in depth. The deepest coal shaft in the 
United States is located at Pottsville, Pa. In 1885 it had reached a depth of 
1,576 feet. From this great depth 400 cars, holding four tons each, are 
hoisted daily. The deepest silver mine in the United States is the Yellow 
Jacket, one of the great Comstock system at Virginia City, Nevada; the 
lower levels are 2,700 feet below the hoisting works. 

The largest locomotive ever constructed prior to 1880 was that 
made at the Baldwin Locomotive Works during the early part of 1879. It 
was turned out ready for use April 10th of that year and named Uncle Dick. 
Uncle Dick weighed. 130,000 pounds; was sixty feet from headlight to the 
rear end of the tender. He is now at work on the Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe road. During the year 1SS3 the same works that constructed 
Uncle Dick turned out several locomotives for the Northern Pacific railroad, 
each weighing 180,000 pounds. During the same year, as if to overshadow 
the Baldwin works, the Central Pacific company caused to be built at their 
shops in Sacramento, Cal., what are really the largest locomotives in the 
world. They have eight drive-wheels each, the cylinders are 19 inches j n 
diameter, and the stroke three feet. These engines weigh, with the tender, 
as Uncle Dick’s weight was given, almost 190,000 pounds. The Baldwin 
Works, in 1889, completed for the Northern Pacific an engine weighing., 
with tender, 225,000 pounds. 

“ Liberty,” Bartholdi’s statue, presented to the United. States 

by the French people in 1SS5, is the largest statue ever built. Its conception 
is due to the great French sculptor whose name it bears. It is said to be a 
li keness of his mother. Eight years of time were consumed in the construc¬ 
tion of this gigantic brazen image. Its weight is 440,000 pounds, of which 
146,000 pounds are copper, the remainder iron and steel. The major part of 
the iron and steel was used in constructing the skeleton frame work for the 
inside. The mammoth electric light held in the hand of the giantess is 305 
feet above tide-water. The height of the figure is 152% feet; the pedestal 
91 feet, and the foundation 52 feet and 10 inches. Forty persons can find 
standing-room within the mighty head, which is 14% feet in diameter. A 
six-foot man standing on the lower lip could hardly reach the eyes. The 
index finger is eight leet in length and the nose 3%'feet. The Colossus of 
Rhodes was a pigmy compared with this latter day wonder. 

The largest stone bridge on the face of the earth is that finished 
in May, 1885, at Lagang, China. Chinese engineers had sole control of its 
construction. It crosses an arm of the China Sea, is nearly six miles in 
length, is composed entirely of stone, and has 300 arches, each 70 feet high. 
It is the most colossal structure ever reared by man, yet we sneer at the 
“heathen Chinee.” The largest truss iron bridge in the world crosses the 
Firth of Tay, Scotland. It is 18,612 feet in length and composed of eighty- 
five spans. The longest wooden bridge in the world is that crossing Lake 
Ponchartrain, near New Orleans, La. It is a trestle-work twenty-one miles 
in length, built of cypress piles which have been saturated with creosote 
oil to preserve them. The highest bridge in the United States is over Kin- 
zina Creek, near Bradford. Pa. It was built in 1882, has a total span of 2 oci 
feet and is 301 feet above tne creek bed. 3 

10 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


The “Centennial ox:,” bred by Samuel Barkley of Somerset 
County, Pa., was the largest specimen of the bovine the world has ever 
seen. He weighed 4,900 pounds the day he arrived in Philadelphia. This 
mountain of beef was of mixed stock, being short-horn, native, “scrub,” 
and Ayrshi-e, the short-horn predominating. After the exhibition was 
ended the giant ox was butchered and exhibited as “show beef” at Phila¬ 
delphia during the holidays of 1876. A short-horn steer weighing 4,100 
pounds was slaughtered at Detroit in 1874. A. N. Meal of Moberly, Mo., 
formerly owned the largest cow in the world. Mr. Meal disposed of her in 
1883, the Cole Circus Company being the purchasers. She weighed the day 
of sale 3,296 pounds. Mr. John Pratt of Chase County, Kan., was formerly 
the owner of a cow weighing 3,200 pounds. She was of the common “scrub” 
stock and stood nineteen hands high. 

The great pyramid of Cheops is the largest structure of any 
kind ever erected by the hand of man. Its original dimensions at the base 
were 764 feet square, and its perpendicular height in the highest point 4S8 
feet’ it covers four acres, one rood, and twenty-two perches of ground and 
has been estimated by an eminent English architect to have cost not less 
than £30,000,000, which in United States currency would be about $145,200,- 
000. Internal evidence proves that the great pyramid was begun about the 
year 2170 B.C., about the time of the birth of Abraham. It is estimated 
that about 5,000,000 tons of hewn stone were used in its construction, and 
the evidence points to the fact that these stones were brought a distance of 
about 700 miles from quarries in Arabia. 

The largest and grandest temple of worship in the world is 
the St. Peter’s Cathedral at Rome. It stands on the site of Nero’s circus, in 
the northwest part of the city, and is built in form of a Latin cross. The 
total length of the interior is 612% English feet; transept, 446% feet; height 
of nave, 152% feet; diameter of cupalo, 193 feet; height of dome from pave¬ 
ment to top of cross, 448 feet. The great bell alone without the hammer 
or clapper weighs 18,600 pounds, or over 9J4 tons. The foundation was laid 
in 1450 A.D. Forty-three Popes lived and died during the time the work 
was in progress. It was dedicated in the year 1826, but not entirely finished 
until the year 1880. The cost, in round numbers, is set down at $70,000,000. 

The Capitol building at Washington, D. C., is the largest 
building in the United States. The corner stone was laid December 18th, 
1793, by President Washington, assisted by other Masons. It was partially 
destroyed by the British in 1814. The present dome was begun in 1855 and 
finishe'd in 1863. The flag of the United States first floated from it Decem¬ 
ber 12th, 1863. The cost of the entire building has been something over $13,- 
000,000. Its length is 715 feet 4 inches; width, 324 feet. It covers 3^ 
acres of ground. The distance from the ground to the top of the dome is 
3°7J£ feet; diameter of the dome, 135% feet—making fifth as to size with the 
greatest domes of the world. 

•"The largest and costliest private mansion in the world is that 
belonging to Lord Bute, called Montstuart, and situated near Rothesay, 
England. It covers nearly two acres; is built in gothic style; the walls, 
turrets and balconies are built of stone. The immense tower in the center 
of the building is 120 feet high, with a balcony around the top. The halls 
are constructed entirely of marble and alabaster, and the rooms are finished 
in mahogany, rosewood and walnut. The fire-places are all carved mar¬ 
bles of antique design. The exact cost of this fairy palace is not known, 
but it has never been estimated at less than $8,000,000. 

The largest body of fresh water in the world is Lake Superior. 
It is 400 miles long and 180 miles wide; its circumference, including the 
windings of its various bays, has been estimated at 1,800 miles. Its area in 
square miles is 32,000, which is greater than the whole of New England, 
leaving out Maine. The greatest depth of this inland sea is 200 fathoms, 
or 1,200 feet. Its average depth is about 160 fathoms. It is 636 feet above 
sea level. 


11 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE . 


The corner stone of the Washington monument, the highest 
<n the United States, and until iSSo the highest in the world, was laia July 
4th, 1848. Robert E. Winthrop, tnen the Speaker of the House, delivered 
the oration. Work progressed steadily for about six years, until the funds 
of the monumental society became exhausted. At that time the monument 
was about 175 feet high. From 185a until 1S79 nothing to speak of was done 
on the building. In the year last above named Congress voted an appro¬ 
priation of £200,000 to complete the work. From that time forward work 
progressed at a rapid rate until December 6th, 1S84, when the aluminum 
apex was set at 555 feet 5% inches from the foundation and the work de¬ 
clared finished. 'The foundation is 146^ feet square; number of stones 
used above the 130-foot level, 9,163; total weight stone used in work, 81,120 
tons. 

The famous Corliss engine, the largest ever constructed, and 
the one used to drive the machinery in the great hall at the Centennial of 
1876, is now in the shops of the Pullman Car Company at Pullman, near 
Chicago, Ill. The writer is aware that this differs from other statements 
that have been made, it being generally supposed that the Emperor ol 
Brazil bought the engine and removed it to his own country. He did talk 
of buying it, but the bargain was never consummated. This tireless giant 
works in" an upright position, is over 40 feet high, of 1,400 horse-power, and 
has two 40-inch cylinders and a 10-foot stroke. 

The largest ferry-boat ever constructed was named the Solano, 

and is now in use daily conveying trains across the Straits of Carquinez, 
between Benecia and Port Costa. The Solano is 460 feet long, 116 feet 
wide, and 20 foot depth of hold. She has eight steel boilers, four rudders, 
and a tonage of 3,841 tons. On her decks are four railway tracks, with 
capacity for 48 ordinary freight cars and two locomotives, or 2S passenger 
' coaches of the largest build. 

The highest building in’ the world, not counting the Eiffel 
tower and the Washington monument, is the Cologne cathedral. The 
height from the pavement to the top of the cupola is 511 feet. It is 511 feet 
long, exactly the same as the height, and 231 feet wide. It was begun 
August 15th in the year 1248, and was pronounced finished August 14th, 

1880, over 600 years after the corner stone was laid. 

The highest mountain on the globe is not, as is generally sup¬ 
posed, Mt. Everest, that honor belonging to a lofty peak named Mt. Her¬ 
cules on the Isle of Papua, New Guinea, discovered by Capt. Lawson in 

1881. According to Lawson, this monster is 32,763 feet in height, being 
3,781 feet higher than Mt. Everest, which is only 29,002 feet above the level 
of the Indian ocean. 

The largest State in our grand republic is Texas, which con¬ 
tains 274,356 square miles, capable of sustaining 20,000,000 of people, and then 
it would not be more crowded than Scotland is at present. It ha- been 
estimated that the entire population of the globe could be seated upon 
chairs within the boundary of Texas and each have f ur feet of elbow room. 

The largest anvil is that used in the Woolwich Arsenal, Eng¬ 
land. It weighs sixty tons. The anvil block upon which it rests weighs 
103 tons. Altogether 600 tons of iron were used in the anvil, the block and 
the foundation work. It is said to have been six months cooling before it 
was sufficiently hard to stand the shock of the immense hammer. 

The Mississippi river, from the source of the Missouri to the 
Eads jetties, is the longest river in the world. It is 4,300 miles in length 
and drains an area of 1,7265000 square miles. The Amazon, which is with¬ 
out doubt the widest river in the world, including the Beni, is 4,000 miles in 
length and drains 2,330,000 square miles of territory. 

The largest school in the world is the Jews’ free school of 

Spitalsfield, Eng., which has a daily attendance of 2,800 pupils. 

12 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


New Orleans boasts the largest custom-house in this or any 
other land. It was begun in 184S and over thirty years'elapsed before it 
was finished and ready for use. It is built of Quincy granite, the interior 
being finished in finest marble. It has in rooms; height from the pave¬ 
ment to the top of the cornice is eighty feet, and to the top of the light on the 
dome 1S7 feet. The dome itself is 49 feet square and 61 feet high; estimated 
total cost of building, $4,900,000. 

The largest hotel in the United States, and probably the largest 
in the world, is located at San Francisco, Cal. It is nine stories high and 
cost $3,500,000. It is named the Palace and has accommodations for 1,500 
guests. 

Paris claims the finest theater in the world. It is of solid 

stone, finished with marble floors, and covers about four acres of ground. 
La Scala, of Milan, has the largest seating capacity, while the Auditorium 
at Chicago, completed in 1SS9, seating 7,000 people, ranks second in that 
respect. _ 


The Name of God in Forty-eight Languages. 


Hebrew.Eleah, Jehovah 

Olotu tongue.. 



Chaldaic. 

Eiliah 

German and Swiss. .. . 


Assyrian . „.. 

. Eleah 

Flemish. 


.... God 

Syrian and Turkish ,... 

. Ala'll 

Dutch. 



Malay. 

,. Alla 

English. 


.God 

Arabic. 

.Allah 

Teutonic. 


. . .. Goth 

Languages of the Magi 

. . Orsi 

Danish and Swedish. . 


Old Egyptian. 

.. Tent 

Norwegian .. .. 


.... Gud 

Armenian. 

. Teuti 

Slav. 


. ...Buch 

Modern Egyptian. ... 

. Teun 

Polish. 


.Bog 

Greek. 

Theos 

Polacca. 


.. . Bung 

Cretan. 

.Thios 

Lapp. 


. .Jubinal 

Aedian and Dorian. . . 

...Ilos 

Finnish. 


. .Jumala 

Latin. 

. Deus 

Runic . 



Low Latin .. 

.. Diex 

Zemblian. 


.. Fetiza 

Celtic Gaelic. 

.. .Diu 

Pannonian .,.. 


.Istu 

French .. 

. Dieu 

Ilindostanee.. . 



Spanish.. 

. Dios 

Coromandel... 



Portuguese. 

. Deos 

Tartar. 


. Magatai 

Old German. 

. . Diet 

Persian. 



Provincial. 

. Diou 

Chinese .. 



Low Breton. 

. Done 

Japanese. 


. . Goezer 

Italian. 

. . Dio 

Madagascar .. . 


. Zannar 

Irish. 

. . .Dia 

Peruvian. 

. Puchecammae 


Comparative Cost of Freight by Water and Rail.— It 
has been proved by actual test that a single tow-boat can trans¬ 
port at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans 29,000 tons of 
coal, loaded in barges. Estimating in this way, the boat and its 
tow, worked by a few men, carries as much freight to its destina¬ 
tion as 3,000 cars and 100 locomotives, manned by 600 men, 
could transport. 


13 
















































LOISETTE’S SYSTEM OF MEMORY. 


S O MUCH has been said about Loisette’s memory system, 
the art has been so widely advertised, and so carefully 
guarded from all the profane who do not send five or 
many dollars to the Professor, that a few pages showing how 
every man may be his own Loisette, may be both interesting and 
valuable. 

In the first place, the system is a good one, and well worth the 
labor of mastering, and if the directions are implicitly followed 
there can be no doubt that the memory will be greatly strength¬ 
ened and improved, and that mnemonic feats otherwise impossible 
may be easily performed. Loisette, however, is not an inventor, 
but an introducer. He stands in the same relation to Dr. Pick 
that the retail dealer holds to the manufacturer : the one pro¬ 
duced the article ; the other brings it to the public. Even this 
statement is not quite fair to Loisette, for he has brought much 
practical common sense to bear upon Pick’s system, and, in pre¬ 
paring the new art of mnemonics for the market, in many ways 
he has made it his own. 

If each man would reflect upon the method by which he him¬ 
self remembers things, he would find his hand upon the key of 
the whole mystery. For instance, the author was once trying to 
remember the word blyt/ie. There occurred to my mind the 
words “ Bellman,” “ Belle,” and then the verse : 

“-the peasant upward climbing 

Hears the bells of Buloss chiming.” 

“ Barcarole,” “ Barrack,” and so on until finally the word “ blythe ” 
presented itself with a strange insistance, long after I had ceased 
trying to recall it. 

On another occasion, when trying to recall the name “ Richard¬ 
son,” I got the words “ hay-rick,” “ Robertson,” “ Randallstown,” 
and finally “ wealthy,” from which, naturally, I got “ rich ” and 
“ Richardson ” almost in a breath. 

Still another example : trying to recall the name of an old 
schoolmate, “ Grady,” I got “Brady,” “grave,” “gaseous,” “gas¬ 
tronome,” “gracious,” and I finally abandoned the attempt, 
simply saying to myself that it began with a “ G,” and there was 
an “ a ” sound after it. The next morning, when thinking of 
something entirely different, this name “ Grady ” came up in my 
mind with as much distinctness as though someone had whis¬ 
pered it in my ear. This remembering was done without any 
conscious effort on my part, and was evidently the result of the 
exertion made the day before when the mnemonic processes were 
put to work. Every reader must have had a similar experience 
which he can recall, and which will fall in line with the examples 
given. 


14 




Z OISE TTE'S STSTEM OF MEM OR T. 


It follows, then, that when we endeavor, without the aid of any 
system, to recall a forgotten fact or name, our memory presents 
to us words of similar sound or meaning in its journey toward 
the goal to which we have started it. This goes to show that 
our ideas are arranged in groups in whatever secret cavity or 
recess of the brain they occupy, and that the arrangement is one 
not alphabetical exactly, and not entirely by meaning, but after 
some fashion partaking of both. 

If you are looking for the word “ meadow ” you may reach 
“ middle ” before you come to it, or “ Mexico,” or many words 
beginning with the “ m ” sound, or containing the “ dow,” as 
“ window ” or “ dough,” or you may get “ field ” or “ farm ”— 
but you are on the right track, and if you do not interfere with 
your intellectual process you will finally come to the idea which 
you are seeking. 

How often have you heard people say, “ I forget his name, it 
is something like Beadle or Beagle—at any rate it begins with a 
B.” Each and all of these were unconscious Loisettians, and they 
were practicing blindly, and without proper method or direction, 
the excellent system which he teaches. The thing, then, to do— 
and it is the final and simple truth which Loisette teaches—is to 
travel over this ground in the other direction—to cement the 
fact which you wish to remember to some other fact or word 
which you know will be brought out by the implied conditions— 
and thus you will always be able to travel from your given start¬ 
ing-point to the thing which you wish to call to mind. 

To illustrate: let the broken line in the annexed diagram 
represent a train of thought. If we connect the idea “ a ” with 
“<?” through the steps b, c and d, the tendency of 
the mind ever'afterwards will be to get to e from 
a that way, or from any of the intermediates that 
way. It seems as though a channel were cut in 
our mind-stuff along which the memory flows. 
How to make it flow this way will be seen later on. 
Loisette, in common with all the mnemonic teach¬ 
ers, uses the old device of representing numbers by 
letters—and as this is the first and easiest step in the art, this 
seems to be the most logical place to introduce the accepted 
equivalents of the Arabic numerals : 

O is always represented by s, z or c soft. 

1 is always represented by t, th or d% 

2 is always represented by n. 

3 is always represented bv in. 

4 is always represented by r. 

5 is always represented by l. 

6 is always represented by sh,j, c/i soft or g soft, 

15 



LOISETTE'S SYSTEM OF ME MORE 

7 is always represented by g hard, h c hard, q or final ng. 

8 is always represented by/ or v. 

9 is always represented by p or b. 

All the other letters are used simply to fill up. Double letters in 
a word count only as one. In fact the sytem goes by sound, not 
by spelling—for instance “ this ” or “ dizzy ” would stand for 
ten; “catch” or “gush ” would stand for 76, and the only diffi¬ 
culty is to make some word or phrase which will contain only 
the significant letters in the proper order, filled out with non¬ 
significants into some guise of meaning or intelligibility.* Sup¬ 
pose you wished to get some phrase or word that would express 
the number 3685, you arrange the letters this way : 



You can make out “image of law,” “my shuffle,” “ match- 
ville,” etc., etc., as far as you like to work it out. 

Now, suppose you wished to memorize the fact that $1,000,000 
in gold weighs 3,685 pounds, you go about it in this way, and 
here is the kernel and crux of Loisette’s system : 

“ How much does $1,000,000 in gold weigh ? ” 

“ Weigh—scales.” 

“ Scales—statue of Justice.” 

“ Statue of Justice— image of lazv .” 

The process is simplicity itself. The thing you wish to recall, 
and that you fear to forget, is the weight; consequently you 
cement your chain of suggestion to the idea which is most 

* You can remember the equivalents by noting the fact that z is the first letter ot 
" zero,” and c of “ cipher,” t has but one stroke, n has two, in three. The script/ 
is very like 8, the script p like 9; r is the last letter of four, l is the roman num¬ 
eral for fifty, which suggests/W. The others may be retained as memorizing these 
two nonsense lines; 

Six shy Jewesses chz.se George 
Seven ^reat zhngs came yuarreliw^. 

16 













LOISETTE'S ST STEM OF MEM OR T. 


prominent in jour mental question. What do jou weigh with ? 
Scales. What does the mental picture of scales suggest ? The 
statue of Justice, blindfolded and weighing out award and pun¬ 
ishment to man. Finally, what is this statue of Justice but the 
image of law ? and the words “ image of law,” translated back 
from the significant letters /«, g soft, f and /, give you 3-6-8—5, 
the number of pounds in $1,000,000 in gold. You bind together 
in your mind each separate step in the journey, the one suggests 
the other, and you will find a year from now that the fact will 
be as fresh in your memory as it is to-day. You cannot lose it. 
It is chained to you by an unbreakable mnemonic tie. Mark, that 
it is not claimed that “ weight ” will of itself suggest “ scales ” 
and “scales” “statue of Justice,” etc., but that, having once passed 
your attention up and down that ladder of ideas, your mental 
tendency will be to take the same route, and get to the same goal 
again and again. Indeed, beginning with the weight of $1,000,000, 
“image of law” will turn up in your mind without your con¬ 
sciousness of any intermediate station on the way, after some 
iteration and reiteration of the original chain. 

Again, so as to fasten the process in the reader’s mind even 
more firmly, suppose that it were desired to fix the date of the 
battle of Hastings (A. D. 1066) in the memory; 1066 may be 
represented by the words “ the wise judge ” (tk = 1, s — o,j = 6 t 
dg — 6 ; the others are non-significants); a chain might be made 
thus : 

Battle of Hastings—arbitrament of war. 

Arbitrament of war—arbitration. 

Arbitration—judgment. 

Judgment—the wise judge. 

Make mental pictures, connect ideas, repeat words and sounds, 
go about it any way you please, so that you will form a mental 
habit of connecting the “battle of Hastings” with the idea ol 
“ arbitrament of war,” and so on for the other links in the chain, 
and the work is done. 

Loisette makes the beginning of his system unnecessarily diffi¬ 
cult, to say nothing of his illogical arrangement in the grammar 
of the art of memory, which he makes the first of his lessons. 
He analyzes suggestion into— 

1. Inclusion. 

2. Exclusion. 

3. Concurrence. 

All of which looks very scientific and orderly, but is really 
misleading, and badly named. The truth is that one idea will 
suggest another. 

1. By likeness or opposition of meaning, as “ house ” suggests 

17 


LOISETTE'S SYSTEM OE MEMORY . 

“ room ” or “ door,” etc.; or, “ white ” suggests “ black,” “ cruel,” 
“kind,” etc. 

2. By likeness of sound, as “ harrow ” and “ barrow” ; “Henry ” 
and “ Hennepin.” 

3. By mental juxtaposition, a peculiarity different in each per¬ 
son, and depending upon each one’s own experiences. Thus, 
“ St. Charles ” suggests “ railway bridge ” to me, because I was 
vividly impressed by the breaking of the Wabash bridge at that 
point. “Stable” and “broken leg” come near each other in 
my experience, so do “ cow ” and “ shot-gun ” and “ licking.” 

Out of these three sorts of suggestion it is possible to get from 
• any one fact to any other in a chain certain and safe, along which 
the mind may be depended upon afterwards always to follow. 

The chain is, of course, by no means all. Its making and its 
binding must be accompanied by a vivid, methodically directed 
attention, which turns all the mental light gettable in a focus 
upon the subject passing across the mind’s screen. Before 
Loisette was thought of this was known. In the old times in 
England, in order to impress hpon the mind of the rising gene¬ 
ration the parish boundaries in the rural districts, the boys wer« 
taken to each of the landmarks in succession, the position ana 
bearings of each pointed out carefully, and, in order to deepen 
the impression, the young people were then and there vigorously 
thrashed, a mechanical method of attracting the attention which 
was said never to have failed. This system has had its supporters 
in many of the old-fashioned schools, and there are men who will 
read these lines who can recall, with an itching sense of vivid 
expression, the 144 lickings which were said to go with the mul¬ 
tiplication table. 

In default of a thrashing, however, the student must cultivate 
as best he can an intense fixity of perception upon every fact or 
word or date that he wishes to make permanently his own. It is 
easy. It is a matter of habit. If you will you can photograph an 
idea upon your cerebral gelatine so that neither years nor events 
will blot it out or overlay it. You must be clearly and distinctly 
aware of the thing you are putting into your mental treasure- 
house, and drastically certain of the cord by which you have 
tied it to some other thing of which you are sure. Unless it is 
worth your while to do this, you might as well abandon any 
hope of mnemonic improvement, which will not come without the 
hardest kind of hard work, although it is work that will grow 
constantly easier with practice and reiteration. 

You need, then : 

1. Methodic suggestion. 

2. Methodic attention. 

3. Methodic reiteration. 


18 


LOTSETTE'S STSTEM OF MEMORT. 


And this is all there is to Loisette, and a great deal it is. Two 
of then? will not do without the third. You do not know how 
many steps there are from your hall door to your bed-room, 
though you have attended to and often reiterated the journey. 
But if there are twenty of them, and you have once bound the 
word “nice,” or “nose,” or “news,” or “hyenas,” to the fact of the 
stairway, you could never forget it. 

The Professor makes a point, and very wisely, of the impor¬ 
tance of working through some established chain, so that the 
w’hole may be carried away in the mind—not alone for the value 
of the facts so bound together, but for the mental discipline so 
affoided. 

Here, then, is the “President Series,” w r hich contains the 
name and the date of inauguration of each president from Wash¬ 
ington to Cleveland. The manner in which it is to be mastered 
is this: Beginning at the top, try to find in your mind some 
connection between each word and the one following it. See 
how you can at some future time make one suggest the next, 
either by suggestion of sound or sense, or by mental juxtaposi¬ 
tion. When you have found this dwell on it attentively for a 
moment or two. Pass it backward and forward before you, and 
then go on to the next step. 

The chain runs thus, the names of the presidents being in 
small caps, the date words in italics: 

President.......Chosen as the first word as the one most apt to occur to the. 


mind of any one wishing to repeat the names of the presidents. 

Dentist. Yxzsident and dentist. 

Draw.What does a dentist do? 

To give up .When something is drawn from one it is given up. This is a 

date phrase meaning 1789. 

Self-sacrifice.There is an association of thought between giving up and self- 

sacrifice. 

Washington .Associate the quality of self-sacrifice with Washington’s charac¬ 

ter. 

Morning wash. IVas/ii ngton and 'wash. 

Dew.Early wetness and dew. 

Flower beds.Dew and flowers. 

Tffok a bouquet .Flowers and bouquet. Date phrase (1797). 

Garden.Bouquet and garden. 

Eden.The first garden. 

Adam.Juxtaposition of thought. 

Adams .Suggestion by sound. 

Fall..Juxtaposition of thought. 

Failure.Fall and failure. 

Deficit .Upon a failure there is usually a deficit Date word (1S01). 

Debt.The consequence of a deficit. 

Bonds.Debt and bonds. 

Confederate bonds. .Suggestion by meaning. 

Jefferson Davis.Juxtaposition of thought 

Jefferson. 


Now follow out the rest for yourself, taking about ten at a 
time, and binding those you do last to those you have done be* 
fore each time, before attacking the next bunch. 

19 





















LOISETTE'S STSTEM OF MEMORT. 


1 

Jefferson 
Judge Jeffreys 
bloody assize 
bereavement 
too heavy a sob 
parental grief 
mad son 
Madison 
Madeira 
first-rate wine 
frustrating 
defeating 
feet 

toe the line 
row 

Monroe 

row 

boat 

steamer 

the funnel 

windpipe 

throat 

quinzy 

Quincy Adams 

quince 

fine fruit 

the fine boy 

sailor boy 

sailor 

jack tar 

Jackson 

stone wall 

indomitable 

tough make 

oaken furniture 

bureau 

Van Buren 

rent 

side-splitting 

divert 

annoy 

harassing 

Harrison 

Old Harry 

the tempter 


2 

the fraud 
painted clay 
baked clay 
tiles 
Tyler 
Wat Tyler 
poll tax 
compulsory 
free will 
free offering 
burnt offering 
poker 
Polk 

end of dance 
termination “ly” 
adverb 

_part of speech 
part of a man 
Taylor 
measurer 
theodolite 
Theophilus 
fill us 
Fillmore 
more fuel 
the fame 
flambeau 
bow 
arrow 
Pierce 
hurt 
feeling 
wound 
soldier 
cannon 
Buchanan 
rebuke 

official censure 

to officiate 

wedding 

linked 

Lincoln 

link 

stroll 

sea shore 


3 

the heavy shell 
mollusk 

unfamiliar word 

dictionary 

Johnson’s 

Johnson 

son 

bad son 

dishonest boy 

thievish boy 

take 

give 

Grant 

award 

school premium 
examination 
cramming 
fagging 
laborer 
hay field 
Hayes 
hazy 
clear 
vivid 

brightly lighted 
camp fire 
war field 
Garfield 
Guiteau 
murderer 
prisoner 
prison fare 
half fed 
well fed 
well read 
author 
Arthur 
round table 
tea table 
tea cup 
half full 
divide 
cleave 

Cleveland 

[ 20 ] 













LOISETTE'S ST STEM OF MEMORT. 


It will be noted that some of the date words, as “free will,** 
only give three figures of the date, 845; but it is to be supposed 
that if the student knows that many figures in the date of Polk’s 
inauguration he can guess the other one. 

The curious thing about this system will now become apparent. 
If the reader has learned the series so that he can say it down, 
from President to Cleveland, he can with no effort, and without 
any further preparation, say it back-wards from Cleveland up to 
the commencement! There could be no better proof that this is 
the natural mnemonic system. It proves itself by its works. 

The series should be repeated backwards and forwards every day 
for a month, and should be supplemented by a series of the reader’s 
own making, and by this one, which gives the numbers from o to 
100, and which must be chained together before they can be learned. 


1— wheat 

2— hen 

3— home 

4— hair 

5— oil 

6— shoe 

7— hook 

8— off 

9— bee 

10— daisy 

11— tooth 

12— dine 

13— time 

14— tower 

15— dell 

16— ditch 

17— duck 

18— dove 

19— tabby 

20— hyenas 

21— hand 

22— nun 

23— name 

24— owner 

25— nail 

26— hinge 

27— ink 

28— knife 

29— knob 

30— muse 

31— mayday 

32— hymen 

33— mama 


O—hoes 

34— mare 

35— rniil 

36— image 

37— mug 

38— mu ft 

39— mob 

40— race 

41— hart 

42— horn 

43— army 

44— warrior 

45— roy al 

46— arch 

47— rock 

48— wharf 

49— rope 

50— wheels 

51— lad 

52— lion 

53— lamb 

54— lair 

55 — Hly 
c6—lodge 

57— lake 

58— leaf 

59— elbow 

60— chess 

61— cheat 

62— chain 

63— sham 

64— chair 

65— jail 

66— judge 

“loo —diocese. 


67— jockey 

68— shave 

69— ship 

70— eggs 

71— gate 

72— gun 

73— comb 

74— hawker 

75— coal 

76— cage 

77— cake 

78— coffee 

79— cube 

80— vase 

81— feet 

82— vein 

83— fame 

84— fire 
8 c;—vial 

86— fish 

87— fig 

88— fife 

89— fib 

90— pies 

91— putty 

92— pane 

93— bomb 

94— bier 

95— bell 

96— peach 

97— book 

98— beef 

99— pope 


L21] 












LOISETTE'S ST STEM OF MEMORY. 

By the use of this table, which should be committed as 
thoroughly as the President series, so that it can be repeated 
backwards and forwards, any date, figure or •number can be at 
once constructed, and bound by the usual chain to the fact which 
you wish it to accompany. 

When the student wishes to go farther and attack larger 
problems than the simple binding of two fact$ together, there is 
little in Loisette’s system that is new, although there is much 
that is good. If it is a book that is to be learned as one would 
prepare for an examination, each chapter is to be considered 
separately. Of each a precis is to be written in which the 
writer must exercise all of his ingenuity to reduce the matter in 
hand to its final skeleton of fact. This he is to commit to mem¬ 
ory both by the use of the chain and the old system of interro¬ 
gation. Suppose after much labor through a wide space of 
language one boils a chapter or an event down to the final irre¬ 
ducible sediment: “ Magna Charta was exacted by the barons 
from King John at Runnymede.” 

You must now turn this statement this way and that way; 
asking yourself about it every possible and impossible question, 
gravely considering the answers, and, if you find any part of it 
especially difficult to remember, chaining it to the question which 
will bring it out. Thus, “ What was exacted by the barons from 
King John at Runnymede ?” “ Magna Charta.” “ By whom 

was Magna Charta exacted from King John at Runnymede?” 
“By the .barons.” “From whom was,” etc., etc. ? “King John.” 
“ From what king,” etc., etc. ? “King John.” “Where was Magna 
Charta,” etc., etc. ? “At Runnymede.” 

And so on and so on, as long as your ingenuity can suggest 
questions to ask, or points of view from which to consider the 
statement. Your mind will be finally saturated with the in¬ 
formation, and prepared to spill, it out at the first squeeze of the 
examiner. This, however, is not new. It was taught in the 
schools hundreds of years before Loisette was born. Old news¬ 
paper men will recall in connection with it Horace Greeley’s 
statement that the test of a news item was the clear and satisfac¬ 
tory manner in which a report answered the interrogatories, 
“What?” “When?” “Where?” “Who?” “Why?” 

In the same way Loisette advises the learning of poetry, e. g., 
“The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.” 

“ Who came down?” 

“ How did the Assyrian come down?” 

“Like what animal did?” etc. 

And so on and so on, until the verses are exhausted of every 
scrap of information to be had out of them by the most assiduous 
sross-examination. 


22 


LOTSETTE'S STSTEM OF MEMORT. 


Whatever the reader may think of the availability or value of 
tnis part ot the system, there are so many easily applicable tests 
of the worth of much that Loisette has done, that it may be 
taken with the rest. 


Few people, to give an easy example, can remember the value 
of TT —the ratio between the circumference and the diameter of 
the circle—beyond four places of decimals, or at most six — 
3. 141592-f. Here is the value to 108 decimal places: 

3. I4 i 59 26 5 , 35 8 9793 2 3 8 ‘4 626 433 8 3 2 795° 28S 4 i 97 i 6 9399375’ io 582 

O9749*4459 2 307 8 1 "6406286208*99862 So34 8 ’2534 2 i 1706*79821480 


By a very simple application of the numerical letter values 
these 108 decimal places can be carried in the mind and recalled 
about as fast as you can write them down. All that is to be done 
is to memorize these nonsense lines: 

Mother Day will buy any shawl. 

My love pick up my new muff. 

A Russian jeer may move a woman. 

Cables enough for Utopia. 

Get a cheap ham pie by my cooley. 

The slave knows a bigger ape. 

I rarely hop on my sick foot. 

Cheer a sage in a fashion safe. 

A baby fish now views my wharf. 

Annually Mary Ann did kiss a jay. 

A cabby found a rough savage. 

Now translate each significant into its proper value and you 
have the task accomplished. “ Mother Day,” th=i , r= 4, 

</= 1, and so on. Learn the lines one at a time by the method 
of interrogatories. “Who will buy any shawl?” “Which Mrs. Day 
will buy a shawl?” “ Is Mother Day particular about the sort ol 
shawl she will buy?” “Has she bought a shawl?” etc., etc. Then 
cement the end of each line to the beginning of the next one, 
thus, “Shawl”—“warm garment”—“warmth”—“love”—“my 
love,” and go on as before. Stupid as the work may seem to you, 
you can memorize the figures in fifteen minutes this way so that 
you will not forget them in fifteen years. Similarly you can take 
Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates and turn fact after fact into non¬ 
sense lines like these which you cannot lose. 

And this ought to be enough to show anybody the whole art. 
If you look back across the sands of time and find out that it is 
that ridiculous old “ Thirty days hath September ” which comes 
to you when you are trying to think of the length of October—if 
you can quote your old prosody, 

“O datur ambiguis/' etc., 

with much more certainty than you can serve up your Horace; if, 

23 


tOISETTE'S STSTEM OF MEM OR T. 

in fine, jingles and alliterations, wise and otherwise, have stayed 
with you, while solid and serviceable information has faded 
away, you may be certain that here is the key to the enigma of 
memory. 

You can apply it yourself in a hundred ways. If you wish 
to clinch in your mind the fact that Mr. Love lives at 485 Dear¬ 
born Street, what is more easy than to turn 485 into the word 
“rifle ” and chain the ideas together, say thus: “Love— happi¬ 
ness—good time—picnic—forest—wood rangers— range—rifle 
range— rifle —fine weapon—costly weapon—dearly bought— 
Dearborn. ” 

Or if you wish to remember Mr. Bowman’s name, and you 
notice he has a mole on his face which is apt to attract your at¬ 
tention when you next see him, cement the ideas thus : “Mole, 
mark, target, archer, Bowman.” 


The Copying Pad. —Put 1 ounce of glue to soak in cold 
water until pliable and soft. Drain off the surplus water and 
place the dish in another dish containing hot water. When the 
glue is thoroughly melted, add 6 ounces of glycerine, which 
has been previously heated, and mix the two, adding a few drops 
of carbolic acid to prevent molding. Pour out this mixture into 
a shallow pan (9x12 inches) and set away to cool, taking care 
that the surface is free from blisters. After standing 12 hours it 
is ready for use. To use, write on a sheet of paper what you 
wish to duplicate with a sharp steel pen and strong aniline ink. 
When dry, lay the paper face down on the pad, pressing it lightly, 
and allow it to remain for a moment. On removing the paper 
an impression will be found on the face of the pad, and if another 
paper is placed upon it, it will receive a similar impression. 
When enough impressions have been taken, the face of the pad 
should be immediately washed with a sponge and cold water until 
the ink impression is wholly removed. If the surface of the pad 
becomes dry, wipe it with a moist sponge, and, if uneven, melt 
over a slow fire. _ 

How to Raise the Body of a Drowned Person. —In a 
recent failure to recover the body of a drowned person in New 
Jersey, a French-Canadian undertook the job, and proceeded as 
follows : Having supplied himself with some glass gallon jars 
and a quantity of unslacked lime he went in a boat to the place 
where the man was seen to go down. One of the jars was filled 
half full of lime, and then filled up with water and tightly 
corked. It was then dropped into the water and soon after ex¬ 
ploded at the bottom of the river with a loud report. After the 
third trial, each time at a different place, the body rose to the 
surface and was secured. 


24 





500 ERRORS CORRECTED 


Concise Rules in Grammar, Spelling and Pronunciation. 

T HERE are several kinds of errors in speaking. The 
most objectionable of them all are those in which words 
are employed that are unsuitable to convey the meaning 
intended. Thus, a person wishing to express his intention of go¬ 
ing to a given place says, “ I propose going,” when, in fact, he 
purposes going. The following affords an amusing illustration 
of this class of error : A venerable matron was speaking of her 
son, who, she said, was quite stage-struck. “ In fact,” remarked 
the old lady, “ he is going to a premature performance this 
evening ! ” Considering that most amateur performances are 
premature , it cannot be said that this word was altogether mis¬ 
applied ; though, evidently, the maternal intention w^s to con¬ 
vey quite another meaning. 

Other errors arise from the substitution of sounds similar to 
the words which should be employed ; that is, spurious words 
instead of genuine ones. Thus, some people say “ remunera¬ 
tive ^ when they mean “ remunerative .” A nurse, recommend¬ 
ing her mistress to have a perambulator for her child, advised 
her to purchase a preamputator 1 

Other errors are occasioned by imperfect knowledge of the 
English grammar : thus, many people say, “ Between you and 
I,” instead of “ Between you and me.” And there are numerous 
other departures from the rules of grammar, which will be 
pointed out hereafter. 

Misuse of the Adjective : “ What beautiful butter!” 
“ What a nice landscape! ” They should say “ What a beautiful 
landscape !” “What nice butter /” Again, errors are fre¬ 
quently occasioned by the following causes : 

Mispronunciation of Words : Many persons say pro- 

noxinciation instead of pronunciation; others say pro-nun-ce-a-shun, 
instead of pro-nun-she-a-shun. 

Misdivision of Words and Syllables: This defect 
makes the words an ambassador sound like a nambassador, or 
an adder like a nadder. 

Imperfect Enunciation, as when a person says hebben for 
heaven , ebber for ever, jocholate for chocolate. 

To correct these errors by a systematic course of study would 
involve a closer application than most persons could afford., but 
the simple and concise rules and hints here given, founded upon 
usage and the authority of scholars, will be of great assistance to 
inquirers. 


25 



GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

RULES AND HINTS FOR CORRECT SPEAKING. 

Who and whom are used in relation to persons, and which in relation to things. 
But it was once common to say, “the man which.” This should now be avoided. 
It is now usual to say, “Our Father who art in heaven,” instead of "which art in 
heaven.” 

Whose is, however, sometimes applied to things as well as to persons. We may 
therefore say, “The country whose inhabitants are free.” 

Thou is employed in solemn discourse, and you in common language. Ye 
(plural) is also used in serious addresses, and you in ffimiliar language. 

The uses of the word it are various, and very perplexing to the uneducated. It 
Is not only used to imply persons, but things, and even ideas, and therefore in 
Ipeaking or writing, its assistance is constantly required. The perplexity respect¬ 
ing this word arises from the fact that in using it in the construction of a long sen¬ 
tence, sufficient care is not taken to insure that when it is employed it really points 
out or refers to the object intended. For instance, “It was raining when John 
let out in his cart to go to market, and he was delayed so lo^g .hat it was over be¬ 
fore he arrived.” Now what is to be understood by this sentence? Was the rain 
over? or the market? Either or both might be inferred from the construction of the 
tentence, which, therefore, should be written thus:—“It was aining when John 
jet out in his cart to go to market, and he was delayed so long that the market was 
Over before he arrived.” 

Rule. —After writing a sentence always look through it, and see that wherever the 
word it is employed, it refers to or carries the mind back to the object which it is 
Intended to point out. 

The general distinction between this and that may be thus defined: this de- 
aotes an object present or near, in time or place ; that something which is absent. 

These refers, in the same manner, to present objects, while those refers to things 
jhat are remote. 

Who changes, under certain conditions, into whose and whom ; but that and 
which always remain the same, with the exception of the possessive case, as noted 
above. 

That may be applied to nouns or subjects of all sorts; as, the girl that went to 
ichool, the dog that bit me, the opinion that he entertains. 

The misuse of these pronouns gives rise to more errors in speaking and writing 
than any other cause. 

When you wish to distinguish between two or more persons, say, “ Which is the 
happy man?” not who —“ Which of those ladies do you admire?” 

Instead of “ Whom do you think him to be?” say, “ Who do you think him to 
be?” 

Whom should I see ? 

To whom do you speak? 

Who said so ? 

Who gave it to you ? 

Of whom did you procure them T 

Who was he ? 

Who do men say that I am ? 

•Si? ^"should never be added to his, their, mine, or thine. 

Each is used to denote every individual cf a number. 

Every denotes all the individuals of a number. 

Either and or denote an alternative: “ I will take either road, at your 

pleasure , ” “I will take this or that.” 

Neither means not either ; and nor means not the other. 

Either is sometimes used for each —“Two thieves were crucified, on either side 
one.” 

“Let each esteem others as good as themselves,” should be, “Let each esteem 
others as good as himself.” 

“There are bodies each of which are so small,” should be, “each of which is so 
small.” 

Do not use double superlatives, such as most straightest, most highest, most 
finest. 


26 


GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 


The term worser has gone out of use ; but lesser is still retained. 

The use of such words as chiefest, extremest, etc., has become obsolete, because 
they do not give any superior force to the meanings of the primary words, chief t ex¬ 
treme, etc. 

Such expressions as more impossible, more indispensable, more universal, more 
uncontrolable, more unlimited, etc., are objectionable, as they really enfeeble the 
meaning which it is the object of the speaker or writer to strengthen. For instance. 
Impossible gains no strength by rendering it more impossible. This class of error is 
common with persons who say, “ A great large house,” “ A great big animal,” “ A 
little small foot,” “ A tiny little hand.” 

Here, there and where, originally denoting place, may now, by common consent, 
be used to denote other meanings ; such as, “ There I agree with you,” “ Where we 
differ,” “ We find pain where we expected pleasure,” “ Here you mistake me.” 

Hence, whence and thence, denoting departure, etc., may be used without the 
■wordfrom. The idea of from is included in the word whence —therefore it is un¬ 
necessary to say “ From whence.” 

Hither, thither, and whither, denoting to a place, have generally been super¬ 
seded by here, there, and where. But there is no good reason why they should not 
be employed. ' If, however, they are used, it is unnecessary to add the word to, be¬ 
cause that is implied—“ Whither are you going?” “Where are you going?” 
Each of these sentences is complete. To say, “Where are you going te?” is re¬ 
dundant. 

Two negatives destroy each other, and produce an affirmative. “Nor did he 
not observe them,” conveys the idea that he did observe them. 

But negative assertions are allowable. “His manners are not impolite,” which 
implies that his manners are in some degree marked by politeness. 

Instead of “Let you and /,” say “Let you and me.” 

Instead of “I am not so tall as him,” say “ I am not so tall as he.” 

When asked “Who is there?” do not answer “Me,” but “I.” 

Instead of “For you and /,” say “ For you and me.” 

Instead of “Says I,” say, “I said.” 

Instead of “You are taller than me,” say “You are taller than I.” 

Instead of “ I ain't,” or “I arn't,” say “ I am not.” 

Instead of “ Whether I be present or no, say “ Whether I be present or not.” 

For “ Not that I know on, say “ Not that I know.” 

Instead of “ Was I to do so,” say “ Were I to do so.” 

Instead of “ I would do the same if I was him,” say “ I would do the same if I 

were hc. ,> 

Instead of‘‘I had as lief go myself,” say “ I would as soon go myself,” or "I 
would rather.” 

It is better to say “Six weeks ago,” than “Six weeks back.” 

It is better to say “Since which time,” than “ Since when.”_ 

It is better to say “ I repeated it,” than “ I said so over again.” 

Instead of “ He was too young to have suffered much,” say “ He was too young to 


suffer much.” 

Instead of “ Less friends,” say “Fewer friends.” Less refers to quantity. 

Instead of “ A quantity of people,” say “A number of people.” 

Instead of “He and they we know,” say “ Him and them.” 

Instead of “As far as I can see,” say “ So far as I can see.” 

Instead of “ A new pair of gloves, say “ A pair of new gloves.” 

Instead of “I hope you’ll think nothing on it,” say “ I hope you’ll think nothing 
of it.” 

Instead of “ Restore it back to me,” say “ Restore it to me. 

Instead of “I suspect the veracity of his story,” say “ I doubt the truth of his 

story.” , n 

Instead of “ I seldom or ever see him,” say “ I seldom see him.” w 

Instead of “I expected to have found him,” say “ I expected toffind him.’ 

Instead of “ Who learns you music? ” say “Who teaches you music?” 

Instead of “ I never sing whenever I can help it,” say “ I never sing when I can 

^ | )9 

Instead of “Before I do that I must first ask leave,” say “Before I do that I must 


ask leave.” 


27 


GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

Instead of saying “The observation of the rule,” say “The observance of the 
rule.” 

Instead of “ A man eighty years of age,” say “ A man eighty years old.” 

Instead of “ Here lays his honored head,” say “ Here lies his honored head.” 

Instead of “He died from negligence ," say “He died through neglect,” cr “ in 
consequence of neglect.” 

Instead of “ Apples are plenty/' say “ Apples are plentiful.” 

Instead of “The latter end of the year," say “The end, or the close, of the year.” 

Instead of “The then government,” say “ The government of that age, or century, 
or year, or time.” 

Instead of “A couple of chairs,” say “Two chairs.” 

Instead of “ They are united together in the bonds of matrimony,” say “ They 
are united in matrimony,” or “They are married.” 

Instead of “We travel slow” say “We travel slowly.” 

Instead of “He plunged down into the river,” say “ He plunged into the river.” 

Instead of “ He jumped from off 0/ the scaffolding,” say “ He jumped off the 
scaffolding.” 

Instead of “He came the last of all” say “He came the last.” 

Instead of "universal,” with reference to things that have any limit, say “gen¬ 
eral ;” “generally approved,” instead of “universally approvedgenerally be¬ 
loved,” instead of “universally beloved.” 

Instead of “Theyruined one another,” say “They ruined each other.” 

Instead of “ If in case I succeed,” say “ If I succeed.” 

Instead of “A large enough room,” say “A room large enough.” 

•Instead of “I am slight in comparison to you,” say “ I am slight in comparison 
with you.” 

Instead of “I went for to see him,” say “I went to see him.” 

Instead of “The cake is all eat up,” say “The cake is all eaten ” 

Instead of “ Handsome is as handsome does,” say “ Handsome is who handsome 
does.” 

Instead of “The book fell on the floor,” say “The book fell to the floor.” 

Instead of “ His opinions are approved cf by all,” say “ His opinions are approved 
by all.” 

Instead of “ I will add one more argument/’ say “ I will add one argument more,” 
or “another argument." 

Instead of “ A sad curse is war,” say “ War is a sad curse.” 

Instead of “He stands six foot high,” say “He measures six feet,” or “His 
height is six feet.” 

Instead of “ I go every now andthen,” say “I go sometimes for often).” 

Instead of Who finds him in clothes,” say “ Who provides him with clothes.” 

Say “ The first two,” and the last two,” instead of “the two first,” “ the two last.” 

Instead of “ His health was drank with enthusiasm” say “ His health was dru.ik 
enthusiastically.” 

Instead of " Except I am prevented,” say “Unless I am prevented.” 

Instead of “ In its primary sense,” say “ In its primitive sense." 

Instead of “It grieves me to see you,” say “lam grieved to see you.” 

Instead of “ Give me them papers,” say “ Give me those papers." 

Instead of “ Those papers I hold in my hand,” say “These papers I hold in my 
hand.” 

Instead of “ I could scarcely imagine but what,” say “ I could scarcely imagine 
but that.” 

Instead of “ He was a man notorious for his benevolence,” say “ He was noted 
for his benevolence.” 

Instead of “ She was a woman celebrated for her crimes,” say “ She was notorious 
on account of her crimes.” 

Instead of “ What may your name be?” say “ What is your name?” 

Instead of “ I lifted it up,” say “ I lifted it.” 

Instead of “It is equally of the same value,” say “It is of the same value,” or 
“ equal value.” 

Instead of “I knew it previous to your telling me,” say “I knew it previously to 
your telling me." 


28 


GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

Instead of “ You was out when I called,” say “ You were out when I called.” 

Instead of “I thought I should have won this game,” say “I thought I should 
win this game.” 

Instead of “ This much is certain,” say “ Thus much is certain,” or, “ So much is 
certain.” 

Instead of "He went away as it may be yesterday week,” say “He went away 
yesterday week.” 

Instead of “ He came the Saturday as it may be before the Monday,” specify the 
Monday on which he came. 

Instead of “ Put your watch in your pocket,” say “Put your watch into your 
pocket.” 

Instead of “ He has got riches,” say “ He has riches.” 

Instead of “ Will you set down ? ” say “ Will you sit down ? ” 

Instead of " No thankee,” say " No, thank you.” 

Instead of “ I cannot do it without farther means,” say “ I cannot do it without 
further means.” 

Instead of " No sooner but,” or “ No other but,” say “ than.” 

Instead of “ Nobody else but her,” say “Nobody but her.” 

Instead cf “ He fell down from the balloon,” say “ He fell from the balloon.” 

Instead of " He rose up from the ground,” say “ He rose from the ground.” 

Instead of ‘ These kind of oranges are not good,” say “This kind of oranges is 
not good.” 

Instead of “Somehow or another,” say “ Somehow or other.” 

Instead of “ Will I give you some more tea?” say “Shall I give you some more 
tea?” 

Instead of “ Oh dear, what will I do ?” say “ Oh dear, what shall I do?” 

Instead of “I think indifferent of it,” say “ I think indifferently of it.” 

Instead of “ I will send it conformable to your orders,” say “I will send it con¬ 
formably to your orders.” 

Instead of * ‘ To be given away gratis, ’’ say “ To be given away.” 

Instead of “ Will you enter in ?” say “Will you enter?" 

Instead of “ This three days or more,” say “These three days or more.” 

Instead of “ He is a bad grammarian,” say “ He is not a grammarian.” 

Instead of “ We accuse him for,” say “We accuse him of.” 

Instead of “ We acquit him from,” say “ We acquit him of.” 

Instead of “ I am averse from that,” say “ I am averse to that.” 

Instead of “ 1 confide on you,” say “ I confide in you.” 

Instead of "As soon as ever,” say “As soon as.” 

Instead of “The very best,” or “The very worst,” say "The best or the worst.” 

Avoid such phrases as "No great shakes,” " Nothing to boast of,” “Down in my 
boots,” “ Suffering from the blues.” All such sentences indicate vulgarity. 

Instead of “ No one hasn't called,” say " No one has called.” 

Instead of “You have a right to pay me,” say “It is right that you should pay 
me.” 

Instead of “ I am going over the bridge,” say “ I am going across the bridge.” 

Instead of “I should just think I could,” say “I think I can.” 

Instead of “There has been a good deal” say “ There has been much.” 

Instead of saying " The effort you are making for meeting the bill,” say “ The 
effort you are making to meet the bill.” 

To say “ Do not give him no more of your money,” is equivalent to saying “Give 
him some of your money.” Say “ Do not give him any of your money.” 

Instead of saying‘‘They are not what nature designed, them,” say “They are 
are not what nature designed them to be.” 

Instead of saying “ I had not the pleasure of hearing his sentiments when I wrote 
that letter,” say " I had not the pleasure of having heard,” etc. 

Instead of ‘ The quality of the apples were good,” say ‘ ‘ The quality.of the apples 
was good.” 

Instead of "The want of learning, courage and energy are more visible,” say, 
“Is more visible.” 

Instead of "We die for want,” say “ We die of want.” 

Instead of " He died by fever,” say " He died of fever.” 

29 


GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

Instead of “ I enjoy bad health,” say “ My health is not good.” 

Instead of “ Either of the three,” say “ Any one of the three.” 

Instead of “ Better nor that,” say “ Better than that.” 

Instead of “We often think on you,” say “We often think of you.” 

Instead of “ Mine is so good as yours,” say “Mine is as good as yours.” 

Instead of “ This town is not as large as we thought,” say “ This town is not so 
large as we thought.” 

Instead of “ Because why?” say “Why?” 

Instead of “ That there boy,” say “ That boy.” 

Instead of “That horse is not much worth,” say “The horse is not worth much.” 

Instead of “ The subject-matter of debate,” say “ The subject of debate.” 

Instead of saying “ When he was come back,” say “ When he had come back.” 

Instead of saying “His health has been shook,” say “His health has been 
shaken.” 

Instead of “ It was spoke in my presence,” say “ It was spoken in my presence.” 

Instead of “ Very right,” or “ Very wrong,” say “ Right,” or “ Wrong.” 

Instead of “The mortgageor paid him the money,” say “The mortgagee paid 
him the money,” The mortgagee lends ; the mortgageor borrows. 

Instead of “ I took you to be another person,” say “ I mistook you for another per- 
son.” 

Instead of “ On either side of the river,” say “ On each side of the river.” 

Instead of “ There's fifty,” say “ There are fifty.” 

Instead of “The best of the two,” say “The better of the two.” 

Instead of “ My clothes have become too small for me,” say “I have grown too 
stout for my clothes.” 

Instead of “Two spoonsful of physic,” say “Two spoonfuls of physic.” 

Instead of “ She said, says she,” say “She said.” 

Avoid such phrases as “ I said, says I,” “Thinks I to myself,” etc. 

Instead of “ I don’t think so,” say “ I think not.” 

Instead of " He was in eminent danger,” say “He was in imminent danger.” 

Instead of “ The weather is hot,” say “ The weather is very warm.” 

Instead of “I sweat,” say “I perspire.” 

Instead of “ I only want two dollars,” say “ I want only two dollars.” 

Instead of “ Whatsomever,” say “ Whatever,” or “ Whatsoever.” 

Avoid such exclamations as “God bless me !”“ God deliver me!” “By God!” 
“By Gosh!” “My Lord!” “Upon my soul,” etc., which are vulgar on the one 
hand, and savor of impiety on the other, for—“Thou shalt net take the name of the 
Lord thy God in vain.” 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Accent is a particular stiess or force of the voice upon certain syllables or words. 
This mark ' in printing denotes the syllable upon which the stress or force of the 
voice should be placed. 

A word may have more than one accent. Take as an instance aspiration. In 
uttering this word we give a marked emphasis of the voice upon the first and third 
syllables, and therefore those syllables are said to be accented. The first of these 
accents is less distinguishable than the second, upon which we dwell longer, there¬ 
fore the second accent in point of order is called the primary, or chief accent of the 
word. 

When the full accent falls on a vowel, that vowel should have a long sound, as in 
vo’cal\ but when it falls on or after a consonant, the preceding vowel hasashoit 
sound, as in hab’it. 

To obtain a good knowledge 01 pronunciation, it is advisable for the reader to 
listen to the examples given by good speakers, and by educated persons. We learn 
the pronunciation of words, to a great extent, by imitation, just as birds acquire the 
notes of other birds which may be near them. 

But it will be very important to bear in mind that there are many words having a 
double meaning or application, and that the difference of meaning is indicated by 
the difference of the accent. Among these words, nouns are distinguished from 

30 



GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 


verbs by this means: nouns are mostly accented on the first syllable, and verbs on 
the last. 

Noun signifies name; nouns are the names of persons and things, as well as of 
things not material and palpable, but of which we have a conception and knowl¬ 
edge, such as courage, firmness, goodness, strength : and verbs express actions, 
movements, &c. If the word used signifies that anything has been done, or is being 
done, or is, or is to be done, then that word is a verb. 

Thus when we say that anything is “ an in'sult,” that word is a noun, and is ac¬ 
cented on the first syllable ; but when we say he did it “to insult' another person,” 
the word insult' implies acting, and becomes a verb, and should be accented on the 
last syllable. 

A list of nearly all the words that are liable to similar variation is given here. It 
will be noticed that those in the first column, having the accent on the first syllable, 
ar" mostly nouns; and that those in the second column, which have the accent on 
the second and final syllable, are mostly verbs: — 


Noun, dr’c. 

Ab'ject 

Ab'sent 

Ab'stract 

Ac'cent 

Af'fix 

As'pect 

Attribute 

Aug'ment 

Au'gust 

Bom'bard 

Col'league 

Col'lect 

Com'ment 

Com'pact 

Cora'plot 

Com'port 

Com'pound 

Com'press 

Con'cert 

Con'crete 

Con'duct 

Con'fine 

Con'fhct 

Con'serve 

Con'sort 

Con'test 

Con'text 

Con'tract 


Verb , < 5 r>c. 

abject' 

absent' 

abstract' 

accent' 

affix' 

aspect' 

attrib'ute 

augment' 

august' 

bombard' 

colleague' 

collect' 

comment' 

compact' 

complot' 

comport' 

compound' 

compress' 

concert' 

concrete' 

conduct' 

confine' 

conflict' 

conserve' 

consort' 

contest' 

context' 

contract' 


Noun, &°<r. 

Con'trast 

Con'verse 

Con'vert 

Con'vict 

Con'voy 

De'crease 

Des'cant 

Des'ert 

De'tail 

Di'gest 

Dis'cord 

Dis'count 

Ef'flux 

Es'cort 

Es'say 

Ex'ile 

Ex'port 

Ex'tract 

Fer'ment 

Fore'cast 

Fore'taste 

Fre'quent 

Im'part 

Im'port 

Im'press 

Im'print 

In'cense 

In'crease 


Verb, &>c. 

contrast' 

converse' 

convert' 

convict' 

convoy' 

decrease' 

descant' 

desert' 

detail' 

digest' 

discord' 

discount' 

efflux' 

escort' 

essay' 

exile' 

export' 

extract' 

ferment' 

forecast' 

foretaste' 

frequent' 

impart' 

import' 

impress' 

imprint' 

incense' 

increase' 


Noun, &=c. 

In'l«,y 

In'sult 

Ob'ject 

Out'leap 

Per'fect 

Per'fume 

Per’mit 

Pre'fix 

Prem'ise 

Pres'age 

Pres'ent 

Prod'uce 

Proj’ect 

Pro 7 test 

Reb'el 

Rec'ord 

Refuse 

Re'tail 

Sub'ject 

Su'pine 

Sur'vey 

Tor'ment 

Traj' ect 

Trans'fer 

Trans'port 

Un'dress 

Up'cast 

Up'start 


Verb, &c. 

inlay' 

insult' 

object' 

outleap' 

perfect' 

perfume' 

permit' 

prefix' 

premise' 

presage' 

present' 

produce' 

project' 

protest' 

rebel' 

record' 

refuse' 

retail' 

subject' 

supine' 

survey' 

torment' 

traject' 

transfer' 

transport' 

undress' 

upcast' 

upstai t' 


Cement' is an exception to the above rule, and should always be accented on the 
last syllable. So also the word consols'. 


RULES OF PRONUNCIATION, 

C before a , o, and u, and in. some other situations, is a close articulation, like k. 
Before e, i, and y, c is precisely equivalent to j in same, this; as in cedar , civil, 
cypress, capacity. 

E final indicates that the preceding vowel is long; as in hate, mete, sire, robe, 
lyre, abate, recede, invite, remote, intrude. > , 

E final indicates that c preceding has the sound of s ; as in lace, lance ; and that 
g preceding has the sound of j, as in charge, page, challenge. 

E final in proper English words, never forms a syllable, and in the most used 
words, in the terminating unaccented syllable it is silent. Thus, motive, genuine, 
examine, grcnite, are pronounced motiv, genuin, examin, granit. 

E final, in a few words of foreign origin, forms a syllable ; as syncope, simile. 

31 







GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

E final is silent after / in the following terminations,— ble, cle, die, fie, gle, kle, pie, 
tie, zle ; as in able, 7nanacle, cradle, ruffle, mangle, -wrinkle, supple, rattle,puzzle, 
which are pronounced ab'l, mana'cl, cra'dl, ruffl, man'gl, wrin’kl, sup'pi, puz'zl. 

E is usually silent in the termination en ; as in token, broken ; pronounced tokn, 
brokn. 

OUS, in the termination of adjectives and their derivatives, is pronounced us ; as 
in gracious, pious, pompously. 

CE, Cl, TI, before a vowel, have the sound of s/i ; as in cetaceous, gracious, mo¬ 
tion, partial, ingratiate; pronounced cetashus, grashus, itioshun, parshal, 
ingraskiate. 

SI, after an accented vowel, is pronounced like zh ; as in Ephesian, confusion ; 
pronounced Ephezhan, confuzhon. 

‘GH, both in the middle and at the end of words is silent; as in caught, bought, 
fright, nigh, sigh ; pronounced caut, baut, frite, ni, si. In the following excep¬ 
tions, however, gh are pronounced as f: — cough, chough , clough, enough, laugh, 
rough, slough, tough, trough. 

When WH begins a word, the aspirate h precedes w in pronunciation; as in 
what, whiff, whale ; pronounced hwat, hwiffl. Invale, w having precisely the sound 
of oo, French ou. In the following words -zo is silent:— who, whozn, whose, whoop, 
whole. 

H after r has no sound or use ; as in rhewn, rhyme; pronounced reum, ryme. 

H should be sounded in the middle of words; as in forehead, abhor, behold, ex¬ 
haust, inhabit, un/zorse. 

H should always be sounded except in the following words:—heir, herb, honest, 
ponor, hour, humor, and humble, and all their derivatives,— such as humorously, 
herived from humor. 

K and G are silent before n ; as know, gnaw; pronounced no, naw. 

W before r is silent; as in wring, wreath ; pronounced ring, reath. 

B after 7)i is silent; as in du7nb, numb ; pronounced dum, num. 

L before k is silent as in balk, walk, talk ; pronounced bauk, wauk, tauk. 

PH has the sound of f : as in philosophy ; pronounced filosofy. 

NG has two sounds, one as in singer, the other as in fin-gcr. 

N after 7n, and closing a syllable, is silent ; as in hymn, condemn. 

P before j and t is mute; as in psalm, pseudo, ptarmiga7i : pronounced sarm, 
sudo, tarmigan. 

R has two sounds, one strong and vibrating, as at the beginning of words and sylla¬ 
bles, such as robber, reckon, error ; the other is at the terminations of the words, oi 
when succeeded by a consonant, as farzzzer, morn. 

There are other rules of pronunciation affecting the combinations of vowels, etc. ; 
but as they are more difficult to describe, and as they do not relate to errors which 
are commonly prevalent, it will suffice to give examples of them in the following list 
of words. When a syllable in any word in this list is printed in italics, accent 01 
stress of voice should be laid on that syllable. 


WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED. 


Again, usually pronounced a -gen, not as 
spelled. 

Alien, ale-yen, no t a-li-en. 

Antipodes, an-^^-o-dees. 

Apostle, as a-pof l, without the t. 

Arch, artch in compounds of our own 
language, as in archbishop, archduke ; 
but ark in words derived from the 
Greek, as archaic, ar-ka-\V .; archaeolo¬ 
gy, ar-ke-o/-o-gy; archangel, ark -ain- 
gel; archetype, ar-ke-type; archiepis- 


copal, ar-ke-e-//r-co-pal; archipelago, 
ar-ke-/W-a-go; ar-chives, ar-kivz, etc 
Asia, «-shia. 

Asparagus as spe'led,[not asparagrass. 
Aunt, ant, not awnt. 

Awkward, awk -wurd, not awk -urd. 
Bade, bad. 

Because, b e-caws, not be-c^s. 

Been, bin. 

Beloved, as a verb, bz-luvd; as an ad¬ 
jective, be-/«z/-ed. Blessed, cursed, 

32 




GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION 


etc., are subject to the same rule. 
Beneath, with the th in breath, not with 
the th in breathe. 

Biog'raphy, as spelled, not beography. 
Caprice, capreece. 

Catch, as spelled, not ketch. 

Chaos, £a-oss. 

Charlatan, shar-\atan. 

Chasm, kazm. 

Chasten, chasn. 

Chivalry, shiv- airy. 

Chemistry, kem'-is-try . 

Choir, kwire. 

Combat, kom- bat. 

Conduit, kun- dit. 

Corps, kor: the plural corps is pro¬ 
nounced korz. 

Covetous, cuv-e-tus, not cuv-e-chus. 
Courteous curt- yus. 

Courtesy (politeness), cur- te-sey. 
Courtesy (a lowering of the body), curt- 
sey. 

Cresses, as spelled, not crcc-ses. 

Cu'riosity, cu-re-cs-e-ty, not cunwity. 
Cushion, coosh- un, not coosh-z«. 

Daunt, dazvnt, not dant or darnt. 

Design and desist have the sound of.r, not 
of z. 

Desire should have the sound of z. 

Dew, due, not doo. 

Diamond, as spelled, not di- mond. 
Diploma, de-plo-raa, not dip- lo-ma. 
Diplomacy, de-//<?-ma-cy, not dip- lo-ma- 
cy. 

Divers (several), di-ve rz; but diverse 
(different), di-verse. 

Drought, drowt, not drawt. 

Duke, as spelled, not dook. 

Dynasty, dy- nas-ty, not dyn- as-te. 

Edict, edickt, not e/-ickt. 

E’en, and e’er, een and air. 

Egotism, ego-tism, not zvf-o-tism. 

Either, ether. 

Engine, czz-jin, not in- jin. 

Epistle, without the t. 

Epitome, e-pit- o-me. 

Epoch, ep-oeV, not epock. 

Equinox, equi-nox, not ry-kwe-nox. 
Europe, U- rup, not £/ T -rope. 

European, not Eu-repean. 

Every, ev-er-y, not ev-ry. 

Executor, egz-ceutor, not with the sound 
of X. 

Extraordinary, ex-/zw-di-ner-i, not ex¬ 
traordinary, nor extrornary. 

February, as spelled, not Febuary. 
Finance, f e-nance , notyfnance. 
Foundling, as spelled, not/c«tfMing. 
Garden, gar- dn, not gar-den, nor gard- 
ing. 

Gauntlet, gawnt-let, net gaxt-let. 


Geography, as spelled, not y<?£Taphy, or 
gehography. 

Geometry, as spelled, not jom-etry. 

Haunt, hawnt, not hant. 

Height, hite, not highth. 

Heinous, hay- nus, not hee- nus. 

Horizon, ho -ri-zn, not hor- i-zon. 

Hymeneal, hy-men-eal, not hy-menal. 

Instead, in -stcd, not instid. 

Isolate, z'-so-late, not zz-olate, nor /j- 
olate. 

Jalap, jal-ap, not jolup. 

January, as spelled, notjenuary norjane- 
wary. 

Leave, as spelled, not leaf. 

Legend, lej-e nd, or le- gend. 

Many, men- ney, not man-ny. 

Marchioness, mar- shun-ess, not as spelled. 

Massacre, mas- sa-ker. 

Mattress, as spelled, not mat- trass. 

Matron, ma- trun, not mat-ron. 

Medicine, med-e- Cin, not mcd-cln. 

Minute (sixty seconds), min- it. 

Minute (small), mi -nutc. 

Mischievous, wzs-chiv-us, not mis -chcev- 
us. 

Ne’er, for never, nare. 

New, nu, not noo. 

Oblige, as spelled, not obleege. 

Oblique, ob -leek, or o-blike. 

Odorous, <?-der-us, not od- ur-us. 

Of, ov, except when compounded with 
there, here and where, which should 
be pronounced her e-cf, there-cp, and 
wher e-of. 

Off, as spelt, not awf. 

Organization, <?r-gan-i-z<z-shun. 

Ostrich, cc-trich, not cetridge. 

Pageant, paj-e nt, not pa- jant. 

Parent, pare-e nt, not par-e nt. 

Partisan, par- te-zan, not par-t e-zan, nor 
par- ti-zan. 

Physiognomy, as fiz-x-og-nomy, not physi- 
onnomy. 

Pincers, pin-cerz, not pinch-erz. 

Plaintiff, as spelled, not plantiff. 

Precedent (an example), pres-e-dent ; pre¬ 
cedent (going before in point of time, 
previous, former) is the pronunciation 
of the adjective. 

Prologue, pre-log, not prol- og. 

Radish, as spelled, not red-ish. 

Raillery, rail'-e r-y, or ral-e r-y, not a3 
spelled. 

Rather, ra- ther, not ray-ther. 

Resort, r e-zort. 

Resound, r e-zound. 

Respite, res- pit, not as spelled. 

Rout (a party; and to rout) should be pro¬ 
nounced rowt. Route (a road), root of 
rowt. 



GRA MM A R, SPEL L TNG A ND PR ON UN CIA TION 


Saunter, sawn- ter, notsarn-ter or san-ter. 

Sausage, saw- sage, not .ros-sidge, sas¬ 
sage. 

Schedule, sfred-ule, not shed-ule. 

Seamstress is pronounced j^wz-stress, but 
semp-stress, as the word is sometimes 
spelt, in pronounced .ro?«-stress. 

Shire, as spelled, when uttered as a single 
word, but shortened into shir in compo¬ 
sition. 

Shone, shon, not shun, nor as spelled. 

Soldier, sole-jer. 

Solecism, sol-e- cizm, not ro-le-cizm. 

Soot, as spelled, not sut. 

Sovereign, sov-er-\n , or suv-er-in. 

Specious, j/^-shus, not spesh- us. 

Stomacher, stum- a-cher. 

Stone (weight), as spelled, not stun. 

Synod, sin- od, not jry-nod. 

Tenure, ten- ure, not te- nure. 

Tenet, ten-e t, not te-net. 


Than, as spelled, not thun. 

Tremor, trem-u r, not tre- mor. 

Twelfth should have the th sounded. 
Umbrella, as spelled, not um-ber-el-la. 
Vase, vaiz or vahz, not vawze. 

Was, woz, not wuz. 

Weary, weer-\, not wary. 

Were, wer, not ware. 

Wrath, rawth, not rath: as an adjective 
it is spelled wroth; and pronounced with 
the vowel sound shorter, as in wrath¬ 
ful, etc. 

Yacht, yot, not yat. 

Zenith, zen- ith, not z?-nith. 

Zodiac, zo-de-ak. 

Zoology should have both o 's sounded, as 
zo-ol- o-gy, not zoo- lo-gy. 

Note .—The tendency of all good elocu¬ 
tionists is to pronounce as nearly in a& 
cordance with the spelling as possible. 


Pronounce— 

—ace, not iss, as furnace, not furnter. 

—age, not idge, as cabbage, courage, postage, village. 

—ain, ane, not in, as certain, cert ane, not certz'w. 

— ate, not it, as moderate, not moderte 

—ect, not ec, as aspect, not aspro ; subj ect, not subjro. 

— ed, not id, or ud, as wicked, not wickzd, or wickad. 

—el, not 1 , mode 1 , not mod \; nove\, not nov\. 

—en, not n, as sudd en, not suddw.—Burden, burthen, garden, lengthen, seven, 
strengthen, often, and a few others, have the e silent. 

—ence, not unce, as influence, not influ -mice. 

—es, not is, as please, not pleaste. 

— ile should be pronounced il, as fertrZ, not fert/Ve, in all words except chamomile 
(cam), exile, gentile, infantile, reconcile, and senile, which should be pronounced 
ile. 

—in, not ii. as Lat in, not Lat«. 

—nd, not n, ashusbawr/, not husbaw ; thousand, not thousaw. 

—ness, not n/ss, as careful ness, not carefulnz'ss. 

—ng, not n, as singi ng, not singiw ; speaki«£-, not speakiw. 

— ngth, not nth, as strength not strewth. 

—son, the o should be silent; as in treason, tre-zn, not trc-son. 

—tal, not tie, as capi tal, not capi^te ; metal, not met tic ; mo rtal, noi rnorz e : periodi- 
cal, not periodicte. 

—xt, not x, as near t, not near. 


WHAT’S IN A NAME? 

An Englishman whose name was Wemyss 
Went crazy at last, so it semyss. 

Because the people would not 
Understand that they ought 
To call him not Weemis, but Weems. 

Another whose last name was Knollys 
Tried vainly to vote at the pollys : 

But no ballot he cast 
Because to the last 

The clerk couldn’t call Knolliss Noles. 

34 





GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION\ 

And then a young butcher named Belvoir 
Went and murdered a man with a devoir 
Because the man couldn’t, 

Or possibly wouldn’t. 

Pronounce his name properly Beever. 

There was an athlete named Strachan 
Who had plenty of sinew and brachan. 

And he’d knock a man down 
With an indignant frown 
If he failed to pronounce his name Strawn. 


SHORT RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Words ending in e drop that letter on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel. 
Exceptions—words ending in ge, ce, or oe. 

Final e of a primitive word is retained on taking a suffix beginning with a conso¬ 
nant. Exceptions—wordsending in dge, and truly, duly, etc. 

Final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed 
Into i on tlie addition of a suffix. Exceptions—retained before ing and ish, as 
pitying. Words ending in ie and dropping the e by Rule i, change the i to y, as 
lying. Final y is sometimes changed to e, as duteous. 

Nounsending in y, preceded by a vowel, form their plural by adding s; as 
money, moneys. Y preceded by a consonant is changed to ies in the plural; as 
bounty, bounties. 

Final y of a primitive word, preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i 
before a suffix; as, joyless. 

In words containing el or ie, ei Is used after the sound of s; as ceiling, seize, ex¬ 
cept in siege and a few words ending in cier. Inveigle, neithei, leisure and weird 
also have ei. In other cases it is used, as in believe, achieve. 

Words ending in ceous or cious, when relating to matter, end In ceous; all 
others in cious. 

W T ords of one syllable, ending in a consonant, with a single vowel before it, double 
the consonants in derivatives; as, ship, shipping, etc. But if ending in a consonant 
with a double vowel before it, they do not double the consonant in derivatives; as 
troop, trooper, etc. 

Words of more than one syllable, ending In a consonant preceded by a single 
vowel, and accented on the last syllable, double that consonant in derivatives; as 
commit, committed; but except chagrin, chagrined. 

All words of one syllable ending in l, with a single vowel before it, have II at the 
close; as mill, sell. 

All words of one syllable ending in t» with a double vowel before it, have only one 
I at the close; as mail, sail. 

The words foretell, distill. Instill and fulfill, retain the double 11 of their primi¬ 
tives. Derivatives of dull, skill, will and full also retain the double II when the 
accent falls on these words; as dullness, skillful, willful, fullness. 


PUNCTUATION. 

A period (.) after every declarative and every imperative sentence; as. It is true. 
Do right. 

A period after every abbreviation; as, Dr., Mr., Capt. 

An interrogation point (?) after every question. 

The exclamation point (!) after exclamations; as, Alas! Oh, howlovelyl 
Quotation marks (“ ”) enclose quoted expressions; as, Socrates said: “Ibe- 
lieve the soul is immortal.’* 

A colon (:) is used between parts of a sentence that are subdivided by semi- 
colons. 

A colon Is used before a quotation, enumeration, or observation, that Is Intro- 

35 




PUNCTUA TION. 


■duced by as fellows, iht following, or any similar expression; as, Send me the 
following: 10 doz. “Armstrong’s Treasury,” 25 Schulte’s Manual, etc. 

A semicolon (;) between parts that are subdivided by commas. 

The semicolon is used also between clauses or members that are disconnected 
in sense; as, Man grows old; he passes away; all is uncertain. When as, namely, 
that is, is used to introduce an example or enumeration, a semicolon is put before 
it; and a comma after it; as. The night was cold; that is, for the time of year. 

A comma (,) is used to set off co-ordinate clauses, and subordinate clauses not 
restrictive; as, Good deeds are never lost, though sometimes forgotten. 

A comma is used to set off transposed phrases and clauses; as, “When the 
wicked entice thee, consent thou not.” 

A comma is used to set off interposed words, phrases and clauses; as. Let us, if 
we can, make others happy. 

A comma is used between similar or repeated words or phrases; as. The sky, 
the water, the trees, were illumined with sunlight. 

A comma is used to mark an ellipsis, or the omission of a verb orother important 
word. 

A comma is used to set off a short quotation informally introduced; as. Who 
said, “The good die young” ? 

A comma is used whenever necessary to prevent ambiguity. 

The marks of parenthesis () are used to enclose an interpolation where such 
interpolation is by the writer or speaker of the sentence in which it occurs. Interpo¬ 
lations by an editor or by anyone other than the author of the sentence should be 
inclosed in brackets, []. 

Dashes (—) may be used to set off a parenthetical expression, also to denote an 
interruption or a sudden change of thought or a significant pause. 


THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

1. Every entire sentence should begin with a capital. 

2. Proper names, and adjectives derived from these, should begin with a capital. 

3. All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital. 

4. Official and honorary titles begin with a capital. 

5. Every line of poetry should begin with a capital. 

6. Titles of books and the heads of their chapters and divisions are printed in 
capitals. 

7. The pronoun i, and the exclamation, O, are always capitals. 

8. The days of the week, and the months of the year, begin with capitals. 

9. Every quotation should begin with a capital letter. 

10. Names of religious denominations begin with capitals. 

11. In preparing accounts, each item should begin with a capital. 

12. Any word of special importance may begin with a capital. 


HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 

A business letter should be written clearly, explicitly, and concisely. 

Figures should be written out, except dates; sums of money should be both in 
writing and figures. 

Copies should be kept of all business letters. 

When you receive a letter containing money it should be immediately counted 
and the amount marked on the top margin. 

Letters to a stranger about one’s own personal affairs, requesting answer, should 
always inclose a stamp. 

Short sentences are preferable to long ones. 

Letters requiring an answer should have prompt attention. 

Never write a letter while under excitement or when in an unpleasant humor. 

Never write an anonymous letter. 

Do not fill your letter with repetitions and apologies. 

36 




HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 

Avoid writing with a pencil. Use black ink. Blue or violet may be used, but 
black is better. 

In acknowledging receipt of a letter always mention date. 

Paper. Note, packet or letter size should be used. It is unbusiuess-likc and 
very poor taste to use foolscap or mere scraps. 

Paging. If single sheets are used they should be carefully paged. Business 
letters should be written on but one side of the sheet. 

Folding. A letter sheet should be folded from bottom upward. Bring lower 
edge near the top so as to make the length a trifle shorter than the envelope, then 
fold twice the other way. The folded sheet should be just slightly smaller than the 
envelope. 

If note sheet, fold twice from bottom upward. If envelope is nearly square, single 
fold of note sheet is sufficient. 

Envelopes, like the paper, should be white, and of corresponding size and 
quality. It is poor taste to use colored paper, or anything but black ink. 

The postage stamp should be placed at the upper right hand corner. 

Add ress. This should be so plainly written that no possible mistake could be 
made either in name or address. It is unnecessary to add the letters P. O. after the 
name of the place. When the letter reaches the town it is not likely to go to the 
court-house or jail. Letters of introduction should bear upon envelope the name 
and address of the person to whom sent, also the words in the lower left hand corner, 
“Introducing Mr. -.” 


Luminous Paint. —This useful paint may, it is said, be made 
by the following simple method : Take oyster shells and clean 
them with warm water ; put them into the fire for half an hour; 
it the end of that time take them out and let them cool. When 
^uite cool pound them fine and take away any gray parts, as they 
ire of no use. Put the powder in a crucible in alternate layers 
vith flour and sulphur. Put on the lid and cement with sand 
nade into a stiff paste with beer. When dry, put over the fire 
ind bake for an hour. Wait until quite cold before opening the 
/Id. The product ought to be white. You must separate all 
^ray parts, as they are not luminous. Make a sifter in the follow¬ 
ing manner : Take a pot, put a piece of very fine muslin very 
loosely across it, tie around with a string, put the powder into 
the top, and rake about until only the coarse powder remains; 
open the pot and you will find a very small powder; mix it into 
a thin paint with gum water, as two thin applications are better 
than one thick one. This will give a paint that will remain 
luminous far into the night, provided it is exposed to light during 
the day. 

Transferring Engravings. —It is said that engravings may 
be transferred on white paper as follows : Place the engraving 
a few seconds over the vapor of iodine. Dip a slip of white paper 
in a weak solution of starch, and when dry, in a weak solution of 
oil of vitriol. When again dry, lay a slip upon the engraving and 
place both for a few minutes under a press. The engraving will 
be reproduced in all its delicacy and finish. Lithographs and 
printed matter cannot be so transferred with equal success. 

37 





SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 


A Dictionary of 12,000 Words of Similar and Contrary 

Meaning. 

N O TWO words in the English language have exactly the 
same significance, but to express the precise meaning which 
one intends to convey, and also to avoid repetitions, it is 
often desirable to have at hand a Dictionary of Synonyms. Take 
President Cleveland’s famous phrase, “innocuous desuetude.” 
If he had said simply, “harmless disuse,” it would have sounded 
clumsy, whereas the words he used expressed the exact shade of 
meaning, besides giving the world a new phrase and the news¬ 
papers something to talk about. 

The following list of Synonyms, while not exhaustive, is 
quite comprehensive, and by cross-reference will answer most 
requirements. The appended Antonyms, or words of opposite 
meaning, enclosed in parentheses, will also be found extremely 
valuable, for one of the strongest figures of speech is antithesis , or 
contrast: 

ABANDON, leave, forsake, desert, renounce, relinquish, quit, forego, let go, 
waive. (Keep, cherish.) Abandoned, deserted, forsaken, wicked, reprobate, 
dissolute, profligate, flagitious, corrupt, depraved, vicious. (Cared for, virtuous ) 
Abandonment, leaving, desertion, dereliction, renunciation, defection. 
Abasement, degradation, fall, degeneracy, humiliation, abjection, debase¬ 
ment, servility. (Honor.) Abash, bewilder, disconcert, discompose, con¬ 
found, confuse, shame. (Embolden.) Abbreviate; shorten, abridge, condense, 
rontract, curtail, reduce. (Extend.) Abdicate, give up, resign, renounce, aban¬ 
don, forsake, relinquish, quit, forego. Abet, help, encourage, instigate, incite, 
stimulate, aid, assist. (Resist.) Abettor, assistant, accessory, accomplice, pro¬ 
moter, instigator, particeps criminis, coadjutor, associate, companion, co-operator. 
(Opponent.) Abhor, dislike intensely, view with horror, hate, detest, abominate, 
loathe, nauseate. (Love.) Ability, capability, talent, faculty, capacity, qualifi¬ 
cation, aptitude, aptness, expertness, skill, efficiency, accomplishment, attain¬ 
ment. (Incompetency.) Abject, grovelling, low, mean, base, ignoble, worthless, 
despicable, vile, servile, contemptible. (Noble.) Abjure, recant, forswear, dis¬ 
claim, recall, revoke, retract, renounce. (Maintain.) Able, strong, powerful, 
muscular, stalwart, vigorous, athletic, robust, brawny, skillful, adroit, competent, 
efficient, capable, clever, self-qualified, telling, fitted. (Weak.) Abode, residence, 
habitation, dwelling, domicile, home, quarters, lodging. Abolish, quash, destroy, 
revoke, abrogate, annul, cancel, annihilate, extinguish, vitiate, invalidate, nullify. 
(Establish, enforce.) Abominable, hateful, detestable, odious, vile, execrable. 
(Lovable.) Abortive, fruitless, ineffectual, idle, inoperative, vain, futile. (Effec¬ 
tual.) About, concerning, regarding, relative to, with regard to, as to, respecting, 
with respect to, referring to, around, nearly, approximately. Abscond, run off, 
steal away, decamp, bolt. Absent, a., inattentive, abstracted, not attending to, 
listless, dreamy. (Present.) Absolute, entire, complete, unconditional unquali¬ 
fied, unrestricted, despotic, arbitrary, tyrannous, imperative, authoritative, imper¬ 
ious. (Limited.) Absorb, engross, swallow up. engulf, imbibe, consume, merge, 
fuse. Absurd, silly, foolish, preposterous, ridiculous, irrational, unreasonable, 
nonsensical, inconsistent. (Wise, solemn.) Abuse, v., asperse, revile, vilify, re¬ 
proach, calumniate, defame, slander, scandalize, malign, traduce, disparage, de- 

38 



STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 

preciate, ill-use. (Praise, protect.) Abuse, «., scurrility, ribaldry, contumely, 
obloquy, opprobrium, foul, invective, vituperation, ill-usage. (Praise, protection.) 
Accede, assent to, consent, acquiesce, comply with, agree, coincide, concur, ap¬ 
prove. (Protest.) Accelerate, hasten, hurry, expedite, forward, quicken, des¬ 
patch. (Retard.) Accept, receive, take, admit. (Refuse.) Acceptable, agree¬ 
able, pleasing, pleasurable, gratifying, welcome. (Displeasing.) Accident, 
casualty, incident, contingency, adventure, chance. Accommodate, serve, 
oblige, adapt, adjust, fit, suit. (Disoblige, impede.) Accomplice, confederate, 
accessory, abettor, coadjutor, assistant, ally, associate, particeps criminis. (Ad¬ 
versary.) Accomplish, do, effect, finish, execute, achieve, complete, perfect, con¬ 
summate. (Fail.) Accomplishment, attainment, qualification, acquirement. 
(Defect.) Accord, grant, allow, admit, concede. (Deny.) Accost, salute, ad¬ 
dress, speak to, stop, greet. Account, narrative, description, narration, relation, 
detail, recital, moneys, reckoning, bill, charge. Accountable, punishable, 
answerable, amenable, responsible, liable. Accumulate, bring together, amass, 
collect, gather. (Scatter, dissipate.) Accumulation, collection, store, mass, 
congeries, concentration. Accurate, correct, exact, precise, nice, truthful. 
(Erroneous, careless.) Achieve, do, accomplish, effect, fulfill, execute, gain, win. 
Achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, attainment, performance, acquire¬ 
ment, gain. (Failure.) Acknowledge, admit, confess, own, avow, grant, recog¬ 
nize, allow, concede. (Deny.) Acquaint, inform, enlighten, apprise, make 
aware, make known, notify, communicate. (Deceive.) Acquaintance, famil¬ 
iarity, intimacy, cognizance, fellowship, companionship, knowledge. (Unfamil¬ 
iarity.) Acquiesce, agree, accede, assent, comply, consent, give way, coincide 
with. (Protest.) Acquit, pardon, forgive, discharge, set free, clear, absolve. 
(Condemn, convict.) Act, do, operate, make, perform, play, enact. Action, 
deed, achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, battle, engagement, agency, 
instrumentality. Active, lively, sprightly, alert, agile, nimble, brisk, quick, sup¬ 
ple, prompt, vigilant, laborious, industrious. (Lazy, passive.) Actual, real, posi¬ 
tive, genuine, certain. (Fictitious.) Acute, shrewd, intelligent, penetrating, 
piercing, keen. (Dull.) Adapt, accommodate, suit, fit, conform. Addicted, 
devoted, wedded, attached, given up to, dedicated. Addition, increase, accession, 
augmentation, reinforcement. (Subtraction, separation.) Address, speech, dis¬ 
course, appeal, oration, tact, skill, ability, dexterity, deportment, demeanor. Ad¬ 
hesion, adherence, attachment, fidelity, devotion. (Aloofness.) Adjacent, 
near to, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous, bordering, neighboring. (Distant.) 
Adjourn, defer, prorogue, postpone, delay. Adjunct, appendage, appurtenance, 
appendency, dependency. Adjust, set right, fit, accommodate, adapt, arrange, 
settle, regulate, organize. (Confuse.) Admirable, striking surprising, wonderful, 
astonishing. (Detestable.) Admit, allow, permit, suffer, tolerate. (Deny.) Ad¬ 
vantageous, beneficial. (Hurtful.) Affection, love. (Aversion.) Affection¬ 
ate, fond, kind. (Harsh.) Agreeable, pleasant, pleasing, charming. (Disa¬ 
greeable.) Alternating, intermittent. (Continual.) Ambassador, envoy, 
plenipotentiary, minister. Amend, improve, correct, oetter, mend. (Impair.) 
Anger, ire, wrath, indignation, resentment. (Good nature.) Appropriate, 
assume, ascribe, arrogate, usurp. Argue, debate, dispute, reason upon. Arise, 
flow, emanate, spring, proceed, rise, issue. Artful, disingenuous, sly, tricky, in¬ 
sincere. (Candid.) Artifice, trick, stratagem, finesse. Association, combina¬ 
tion, company, partnership, society. Attack, assail, assault, encounter. (Defend.) 
Audacity, boldness, effrontery, hardihood. (Meekness.) Austere, rigid, rigor¬ 
ous, severe, stern. (Dissolute ) Avaricious, niggardly, miserly, parsimonious. 
(Generous.) Aversion, antipathy, dislike, hatred, repugnance. (Affection.) 
Awe, dread, fear, reverence. (Familiarity.) Awkward, clumsy. (Graceful.) 
Axiom, adage, aphorism, apothegm, by-word, maxim, proverb, saying, saw. 

BABBLE, chatter, prattle, prate. Bad, wicked, evil. (Good.) Baffle, confound, 
defeat, disconcert. (Aid, abet.) Base, vile, mean. (Noble.) Battle, action, 
combat, engagement. Bear, carry, convey, transport. Bear, endure, suffer, sup¬ 
port. Beastly, brutal, sensual, bestial. Beat, defeat, overpower, overthrow, 
rout. Beautiful, fine, handsome, pretty. (Homely, ugly.) Becoming, decent, 
St, seemly, suitable. (Unbecoming.) Beg, beseech, crave, entreat, implore, solicit, 

39 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 

supplicate. (Give.) Behavior, carriage, conduct, deportment, demeanor. Be- 
lief, credit, faith, trust. (Doubt.) Beneficient, bountiful, generous, liberal, 
munificent. (Covetous, miserly.) Benefit, favor, advantage, kindness, civility. 
(Injury.) Benevolence, beneficence, benignity, humanity, kindness, tender¬ 
ness. (Malevolence.) Blame, censure, condemn, reprove, reproach, upbraid. 
(Praise.) Blemish, flaw, speck, spot, stain. (Ornament.) Blind, sightless, heed¬ 
less. (Far-sighted.) Blot, cancel, efface, expunge, erase, obliterate. Bold, 
brave, daring, fearless, intrepid, undaunted. (Timid.) Border, brim, brink, edge, 
margin, rim, verge, boundary, confine, frontier. Bound, circumscribe, confine, 
limit, restrict. Brave, dare, defy. Bravery, courage, valor. (Cowardice.) 

Break, bruise, crush, pound, squeeze. Breeze, blast, gale, gust, hurricane, 
storm, tempest. Bright, clear, radiant, shining. (Dull.) Brittle. Burial, in¬ 
terment, sepulture. (Resurrection.) Business, avocation, employment, engage¬ 
ment, occupation, art, profession, trade. Bustle, stir, tumult, fuss. (Quiet.) 

CALAMITY, disaster, misfortune, mischance, mishap. (Good fortune.) 
Calm, collected, composed, placid, serene. (Stormy, unsettled.) Capa¬ 

ble, able, competent. (Incompetent.) Captious, fretful, cross, peevish, 
petulant. (Good-natured.) Care, anxiety, concern, solicitude, heed, at¬ 
tention. (Heedlessness, negligence.) Caress, kiss, embrace. (Spurn, buf¬ 
fet.) Carnage, butchery massacre, slaughter. Cause, motive, reason. (Ef¬ 

fect, consequence.) Cease, discontinue, leave off, end. (Continue.) Cen¬ 
sure, animadvert, criticise. (Praise.) Certain, secure, sure. (Doubt¬ 
ful.) Cessation, Intermission, rest, stop. (Continuance.) Chance, fate, 
fortune. (Design.) Change, barter, exchange, substitute. Changeable, fickle, 
inconstant, mutable, variable. (Unchangeable.) Character, reputation, repute, 
standing. Charm, captivate, enchant, enrapture, fascinate. Chastity, purity, 
continence, virtue. (Lewdness.) Cheap, inexpensive, inferior, common. (Dear.) 
Cheerful, gay, merry, sprightly. (Mournful.) Chief, chieftain, head, leader 
(Subordinate.) Circumstance, fact, incident. Class, degree, order, rank, 
Clear, bright, lucid, vivid. (Opaque.) Clever, adroit, dexterous, expert, skillful. 
(Stupid.) Clothed, clad, dressed. (Naked.) Coarse, rude, rough, unpolished. 
(Fine.) Coax, cajole, fawn, wheedle. Cold, cool, frigid, wintry, unfeeling, stoic¬ 
al. (Warm.) Color, dye, stain, tinge. Colorable, ostensible, plausible, 
specious. Combination, cabal, conspiracy, plot. Command, injunction, order, 
precept. Commodity, goods, merchandise, ware. Common, mean, ordinary, 
vulgar. (Uncommon, extraordinary.) Compassion, sympathy, pity, clemency. 
(Cruelty, severity.) Compel, force, oblige, necessitate. (Coax, lead.) Compen¬ 
sation, amends, recompense, remuneration, requital, reward. Compendium, 
compend, abridgment. (Enlargement.) Complain, lament, murmur, regret, re¬ 
pine. (Rejoice.) Comply, accede, conform, submit, yield. (Refuse.) Com¬ 
pound, complex. (Simple.) Comprehend, comprise, include, embrace, grasp, 
understand, perceive. (Exclude, mistake.) Comprise, comprehend, contain, em¬ 
brace, include. Conceal, hide, secrete. (Uncover.) Conceive, comprehend, 
understand. Conclusion, inference, deduction. Condemn, censure, blame, 
disapprove. (Justify, exonerate.) Conduct, direct, guide, lead, govern, regulate, 
manage. Confirm, corroborate, approve, attest. (Contradict.) Conflict, com¬ 
bat, contest, contention, struggle. (Peace, quiet.) Confute, disprove, refute, op¬ 
pugn. (Approve.) Conquer, overcome, subdue, surmount, vanquish. (Defeat.) 
Consequence, effect, event, issue, result. (Cause.) Consider, reflect, ponder, 
weigh. Consistent, constant, compatible. (Inconsistent.) Console, comfort, 
solace. (Harrow, worry.) Constancy, firmness, stability, steadiness. (Fickle¬ 
ness.) Contaminate, corrupt, defile, pollute, taint. Contemn, despise, dis¬ 
dain, scorn. (Esteem.) Contemplate, meditate, muse. Contemptible, de¬ 
spicable, paltry, pitiful, vile, mean. (Noble.) Contend, contest, dispute, strive, 
struggle, combat. Continual, constant, continuous, perpetual, incessant. (Inter¬ 
mittent. Continuance, continuation, duration. (Cessation.) Continue, persist, 
persevere, pursue, prosecute. (Cease.) Contradict, deny, gainsay, oppose. 
(Confirm.) Cool, cold, frigid. (Hot.) Correct, rectify, reform. Cost, charge, 
expense, price. Covetousness, avarice, cupidity. (Beneficence.) Cowardice, 
fear, timidity, pusillanimity. (Courage.) Crime, sin, vice, misdemeanor. (Vir- 

40 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 

tue.) Criminal, convict, culprit, felon, malefactor. Crooked, bent, curved, 
oblique. (Straight.) Cruel, barbarous, brutal, inhuman, savage. (Kind.) Cul¬ 
tivation, culture, refinement. Cursory, desultory, hasty, slight. (Thorough.) 
Custom, fashion, manner, practice. 

DANGER, hazard, peril. (Safety.) Dark, dismal, opaque, obscure, dim. 
(Light.) Deadly, fatal, destructive, mortal. Dear, beloved, precious, costly, ex¬ 
pensive. (Despised, cheap.) Death, departure, decease, demise. (Life.) Decay, 
decline, consumption. (Growth.) Deceive, delude, impose upon, over-reach, gull, 
dupe, cheat. Deceit, cheat, imposition, trick, delusion, guile, beguilement, treach¬ 
ery, sham. (Truthfulness.) Decide, determine, settle, adjudicate, terminate, re= 
solve. Decipher, read, spell, interpret, solve. Decision, determination, con¬ 
clusion, resolution, firmness. (Vacillation.) Declamation, oratory, elocution, 
harangue, effusion, debate. Declaration, avowal, manifestation, statement, pro¬ 
fession. Decrease, diminish, lessen, wane, decline, retrench, curtail, reduce. 
(Growth.) Dedicate, devote, consecrate, offer, set, apportion. Deed, act, action, 
commission, achievement, instrument, document, muniment. Deem, judge, esti¬ 
mate, consider, think, suppose, conceive. Deep, profound, subterranean, sub¬ 
merged, designing, abstruse, learned. (Shallow.) Deface, mar, spoil, injure, dis¬ 
figure. ^Beautify.) Default, lapse, forfeit, omission, absence, want, failure. De¬ 
fect, imperfection, flaw, fault, blemish. (Beauty, improvement ) Defend, guard, 
protect, justify. Defense, excuse, plea, vindication, bulwark, rampart. Defer, 
delay, postpone, put off, prorogue, adjourn. (Force, expedite.) Deficient, short, 
wanting, inadequate, scanty, incomplete. (Complete, perfect.) Defile, v., pollute, 
corrupt, sully. (Beautify.) Define, fix, settle, determine, limit. Defray, meet, 
liquidate, pay, discharge. Degree, grade, extent, measure. Deliberate, v., con¬ 
sider, meditate, consult, ponder, debate. Deliberate, a ., purposed, intentional, 
designed, determined. (Hasty.) Delicacy, nicety, dainty, refinement, tact, soft¬ 
ness, modesty. (Boorishness, indelicacy.) Delicate, tender, fragile, dainty, re¬ 
fined. (Coarse.) Delicious, sweet, palatable. (Nauseous.) Delight, enjoy¬ 
ment, pleasure, happiness, transport, ecstacy, gladness, rapture, bliss. (Annoy¬ 
ance.) Deliver, liberate, free, rescue, pronounce, give, hand over. (Retain.) 
Demonstrate, prove, show, exhibit, illustrate. Depart, leave, quit, decamp, re¬ 
tire, withdraw, vanish. (Remain.) Deprive, strip, bereave, despoil, rob, divest. 
Depute, appoint, commission, charge, intrust, delegate, authorize, accredit. De¬ 
rision, scorn, contempt, contumely, disrespect. Derivation, origin, source, be¬ 
ginning, cause, etymology, root. Describe, delineate, portray, explain, illustrate, 
define, picture. Desecrate, profane, secularize, misuse, abuse, pollute. (Keep 
holy.) Deserve, merit, earn, justify, win. Design, n., delineation, sketch, 
drawing, cunning, artfulness, contrivance. Desirable, expedient, advisable, val¬ 
uable, acceptable, proper, judicious, beneficial, profitable, good. Desire, «., 
longing, affection, craving. Desist, cease, stop, discontinue, drop, abstain, for- 
bare. (Continue, persevere.) Desolate, bereaved, forlorn, forsaken, deserted, 
wild, waste, bare, bleak, lonely. (Pleasant, happy.) Desperate, wild, daring, 
audacious, determined, reckless. Despised. Destiny, fate, decree, doom, end. 
Destructive, detrimental, hurtful, noxious, injurious, deleterious, baleful, bane¬ 
ful, subversive. (Creative, constructive.) Desuetude, disuse, discontinuance. 
(Maintenance.) Desultory, rambling, discursive, loose, unmethodical, superficial, 
unsettled, erratic, fitful. (Thorough.) Detail, n., particular, specification, minu¬ 
tiae. Detail, v., particularize, enumerate, specify. (Generalize.) Deter, warn, 
stop, dissuade, terrify, scare. (Encourage.) Detriment, loss, harm, injury, deter¬ 
ioration. (Benefit.) Develop, unfold, amplify, expand, enlarge. Device, artifice, 
expedient, contrivance. Devoid, void, wanting, destitute, unendowed, unprovided. 
(Full, complete.) Devoted, attached, fond, absorbed, dedicated. Dictate, 
prompt, suggest, enjoin, order, command. Dictatorial, imperative, imperious, 
domineering, arbitrary, tyrannical, overbearing. (Submissive.)_ Die, expire, de¬ 
part, perish, decline, languish, wane, sick, fade, decay. Diet, food, victuals, 
nourishment, nutriment, sustenance, fare. Difference, separation, disagreement, 
discord, dissent, estrangement, variety. Different, various, manifold, diverse, 
unlike, separate, distinct. (Similar, homogeneous.) Difficult, hard, intricate, in¬ 
volved, perplexing, obscure, unmanageable. (Easy.) Diffuse, discursive, prolix, 

41 


STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 


diluted, copious. Dignify, aggrandize, elevate, invest, exalt, advance, promote, 
honor. (Degrade.) Dilate, stretch, widen, expand, swell, distend, enlarge, descant, 
expatiate. Dilatory, tardy, procrastinating, behindhand, lagging, dawdling. 
(Prompt.) Diligence, care, assiduity, attention, heed, industry. (Negligence.) 
Diminish, lessen,reduce, contract, curtail, retrench. (Increase.) Disability, un¬ 
fitness, incapacity. Discern, descry, observe, recognize, see, discriminate, separ¬ 
ate, perceive. Discipline, order, strictness, training, coercion, punishment, 
organization. (Confusion, demoralization. Discover, make known, find, invent, 
contrive, expose, reveal. Discreditable, shameful, disgraceful, scandalous, dis¬ 
reputable. (Creditable.) Discreet, cautious, prudent, wary, judicious. (Indiscreet ) 
Discrepancy, disagreement, difference, variance. (Agreement.) Discrimina¬ 
tion, acuteness, discernment, judgment, caution. Disease, complaint, malady, dis¬ 
order, ailment, sickness. Disgrace, n., disrepute, reproach, dishonor, shame, 
odium. (Honor.) Disgrace, v., debase, degrade, defame, discredit. (Exalt) 
Disgust, dislike, distaste, loathing, abomination, abhorrence. (Admiration.) Dis¬ 
honest, unjust, fraudulent, unfair, deceitful, cheating, deceptive, wrongful. 
(Honest.) Dismay, v., terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, appall, dishearten. (En¬ 
courage.) Dismay, n., terror, dread, fear, fright. (Assurance.) Dismiss, send 
off, discharge, discard, banish. (Retain.) Dispel, scatter, drive away, disperse, 
dissipate. (Collect.) Display, snow, spread out, exhibit, expose. (Hide.) Dis¬ 
pose, arrange, place, order, give, bestow. Dispute, v., argue, contest, contend, 
question, impugn. (Assent.) Dispute, n., argument, debate, controversy, quarrel, 
disagreement. (Harmony.) Dissent, disagree, differ, vary. (Assent) Distinct, 
clear, plain, obvious, different, separate. (Obscure, indistinct.) Distinguish, 
perceive, discern, mark out, divide, discriminate. Distinguished, famous, glor¬ 
ious, far-famed, noted, illustrious, eminent, celebrated. (Obscure, unknown, ordin¬ 
ary.) Distract, perplex, bewilder. (Calm, concentrate.) Distribute, allot, 
shar_, dispense, apportion, deal. (Collect.) Disturb, derange, discompose, agi¬ 
tate, rouse, interrupt, confuse, annoy, trouble, vex, worry. (Pacify, quiet.) Dis¬ 
use, discontinuance, abolition, desuetude. (Use.) Divide, part, separate, dis¬ 
tribute, deal out, sever, sunder. Divine, godlike, holy, heavenly, sacred, a par¬ 
son, clergyman, minister. Do, effect, make, perform, accomplish, finished, trans¬ 
act. DociI, tractable, teachable, compliant, tame. (Stubborn.) Doctrine, tenet, 
articles of belief, creed, dogma, teaching. Doleful, dolorous, woe-begone, .ueful, 
dismal, piteous. (Joyous.) Doom, «., sentence, verdict, judgment, fate, lot, des¬ 
tiny. Doubt, n., uncertainty, suspense, hesitation, scruple, ambiguity. (Cer¬ 
tainty.) Draw, pull, haul, drag, attract, inhale, sketch, describe. Dread, n., 
fear, horror, terror, alarm, dismay, awe. (Boldness, assurance.) Dread iuI, fear¬ 
ful, frightful, shocking, awful, ho-rible, horrid, terrific. Dress, »., cloih ng, at¬ 
tire, apparel, garments, costume, garb, livery. Drift, purpose, meaning, scope, 
aim, tendency, direction. Droll, funny, laughable, cpmic, whimsical, queer, 
amusing. (Solemn.) Drown, inundate, swamp, submerge, overwhelm, engulf. 
Dry, a., arid, parched, lifeless, dull, tedious, uninteresting, meagre. (Moist in¬ 
teresting, succulent.) Due, owing to, attributable to, just, fair, proper, debt, igtit. 
Dull, stupid, gloomy, sad, dismal, commonplace. (Bright.) Dunce, simpleton, 
fool, ninny, idiot. (Sage.) Durable, lasting, permanent, abiding, continuing. 
(Ephemeral, perishable.) Dwell, stay, stop, abide, sojourn, linger, tarry. Dwin¬ 
dle, pine, waste, diminish, decrease, fall off. (Grow.) 

EAGER, hot, ardent, impassioned, forward, impatient. (Diffident.) Earn, ac¬ 
quire, obtain, win, gain, achieve. Earnest, a ., ardent, serious, grave, solemn, 
warm. (Trifling.) Earnest, n., pledge, pawn. Ease, n., comfort, rest. (Worry.) 
Ease, v., calm, alleviate, allay, mitigate, appease, assuage, pacify, disburden, rid, 
(Annoy, worry.) Easy, light, comfortable, unconstrained. (Difficult, hard.) 
Eccentric, irregular, anomalous, singular, odd, abnormal, wayward, particular, 
strange. (Regular, ordinary.) Economical, sparing, saving, provident, thrifty, 
frugal, careful, niggardly. (Wasteful.) Edge, border, brink, rim, brim, margin, 
verge. Efface, blot out, expunge, obliterate, wipe out, cancel, erase. Effect, n., 
consequence, result, issue, event, execution, operation. Effect, v., accomplish, 
fulfill, realize, achieve, execute, operate, complete. Effective, efficient, operative, 
serviceable. (Vain, ineffectual.) Efficacy, efficiency, energy, agency, instrument 

42 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS . 


tality. Efficient, effectual, effective, competent, capable, able, fitted. Elimi¬ 
nate, drive out, expel, thrust out, eject, cast out, oust, dislodge, banish, proscribe. 
Eloquence, oratory, rhetoric, declamation. Elucidate, make plain, explain, 
clear up, illustrate. Elude, evade, escape, avoid, shun. Embarrass, perplex, 
entangle, distress, trouble. (Assist.) Embellish, adorn, decorate, bedeck, 
beautify, deck. (Disfigure.) Embolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, cheer, 
urge, impel, stimulate. (Discourage.) Eminent, distinguished, signal, conspicuous, 
noted, prominent, elevated, renowned, famous, glorious, illustrious. (Obscure, un¬ 
known.) Emit, give out, throw out, exhale, discharge, vent. Emotion, perturba¬ 
tion, agitation, trepidation, tremor, mental conflict. Employ, occupy, busy, take 
HP with, engross. Employment, business, avocation, engagement, office, function, 
trade, profession, occupation, calling, vocation. Encompass, v., encircle, sur¬ 
round, gird, beset. Encounter, attack, conflict, combat, assault, onset, engage¬ 
ment, battle, action. Encourage, countenance, sanction, support, foster, cherish, 
inspirit, embolden, animate, cheer, incite, urge, impel, stimulate. (Deter.) End, 
n., aim, object, purpose, result, conclusion, upshot, close, expiration, termination, 
extremity, sequel. Endeavor, attempt, try, essay, strive, aim. Endurance, 
continuation, duration, fortitude, patience, resignation. Endure, v., last, con- 
tinue, support, bear, sustain, suffer, brook, submit to, undergo. (Perish.) Enemy, 
foe, antagonist, adversary, opponent. (Friend.) Energetic, industrious, effec¬ 
tual, efficacious, powerful, binding, stringent, forcible, nervous. (Lazy.) Engage, 
employ, busy, occupy, attract, invite, allure, entertain, engross, take up, enlist. 
Engross, absorb, take up, busy, occupy, engage, monopolize. Engulf, swallow 
up, absorb, imbibe, drown, submerge, bury, entomb, overwhelm. Enjoin, order, 
ordain, appoint, prescribe. Enjoyment, pleasure, gratification. (Grief, sorrow, 
sadness.) Enlarge, increase, extend, augment, broaden, swell. (Diminish.) 
Enlighten, illumine, illuminate, instruct, inform. (Befog, becloud.) Enliven, 
cheer, vivify, stir up, animate, inspire, exhilarate. (Sadden, quiet.) Enmity, ani¬ 
mosity, hostility, ill-will, maliciousness. (Friendship.) Enormous, gigantic, co¬ 
lossal, huge, vast, immense, prodigious. (Insignificant.) Enough, sufficient, 
plenty, abundance. (Want.) Enraged, infuriated, raging, wrathful. (Pacified.) 
Enrapture, enchant, fascinate, charm, captivate, bewitch. (Repel.) Enroll, en¬ 
list, list, register, record. Enterprise, undertaking, endeavor, venture, energy. 
Enthusiasm, earnest, devotion, zeal, ardor. (Ennui, lukewarmness.) Enthu¬ 
siast, fanatic, visionary. Equal, equable, even, like, alike, uniform. (Un¬ 
equal.) Eradicate, root out, extirpate, exterminate. Erroneous, incorrect, 
inaccurate, inexact. (Exact.) Error, blunder, mistake. (Truth.) Especially, 
chiefly, particularly, principally. (Generally.) Essay, dissertation, tract, treatise. 
Establish, build up, confirm. (Overthrow.) Esteem, regard, respect. (Con¬ 
tempt.) Estimate, appraise, appreciate, esteem, compute, rate. Estrangement, 
abstraction, alienation. Eternal, endless, everlasting. (Finite.) Evade, equivo¬ 
cate, prevaricate. Even, level, plain, smooth. (Uneven.) Event, accident, ad¬ 
venture, incident, occurrence. Evil, ill, harm, mischief, misfortune. (Good.) 
Exact, nice, particular, punctual. (Inexact.) Exalt, ennoble, dignify, raise. 
(Humble.) Examination, investigation, inquiry, research, search, scrutiny. Ex¬ 
ceed, excel, outdo, surpass, transcend. (FallShort.) Exceptional, uncommon, 
rare, extraordinary. (Common.) Excite, awaken, provoke, rouse, stir up. (Lull.) 
Excursion, jaunt, ramble, tour, trip. Execute, fulfill, perform. Exempt, free, 
cleared. (Subject.) Exercise, practice. Exhaustive, thorough, complete. 
(Cursory.) Exigency,,, emergency. Experiment, proof, trial, test. Explain, 
expound, interpret, illustrate, elucidate. Express, declare, signify, utter, tell. 
Extend, reach, stretch. (Abridge.) Extravagant, lavish, profuse, prodigal. 
(Parsimonious.) 

FABLE, apologue, novel, romance, tale. Face, visage, countenance. Face¬ 
tious, pleasant, jocular, jocose. (Serious.) Factor, agent. Fail, to fall short, be 
deficient. (Accomplish.) Faint, languid. (Forcible.) Fair, clear. (Stormy.) 
Fair, equitable, honest, reasonable. (Unfair.) Faith, creed. (Unbelief, infidelity.) 
Faithful, true, loyal, constant. (Faithless.) Faithless, perfidious, treacherous, 
(Faithful.) Fall, drop, droop, sink, tumble. (Rise.) Fame, renown, reputation. 
Famous, celebrated, renowned, illustrious. (Obscure.) Fanciful, capricious, 
fantastical, whimsical. Fancy, imagination. Fast, rapid, quick, fleet, expedi- 

43 


.STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 

tious. (Slow.) Fatigue, weariness, lassitude. (Vigor.) Fear, timidity, timor¬ 
ousness. (Bravery.) Feeling, sensation, sense. Feeling, sensibility, suscepti¬ 
bility. (Insensibility.) Ferocious, fierce, savage, wild, barbarous. (Mild.) 
Fertile, fruitful, prolific, plenteous, productive. (Sterile.) Fiction, falsehood, 
fabrication. (Fact.) Figure, allegory, emblem, metaphor, symbol, type Find, 
find out, descry, discover, espy. (Lose, overlook.) Fine, a., delicate, nice. 
(Coarse.) Fine, forfeit, forfeiture, mulct, penalty. Fire, glow, heat, warmth. Firm, 
constant, solid, steadfast, fixed, stable. (Weak.) First, foremost, earliest. (Last.) 
Fit, accommodate, adapt, adjust, suit. Fix, determine, establish, settle, limit. 

,Flame, blaze, flare, flash, glare. Flat, level, even. Flexible, pliant, pliable, 
ductile, supple. (Inflexible.) Flourish, prosper, thrive. (Decay.) Fluctuating, 
wavering, hesitating, oscillating, vacillating, change. (Firm, steadfast, decided.) 
Fluent, flowing, glib, voluble, unembarrassed, ready. (Hesitating.) Folks, per¬ 
sons, people, individuals. Follow, succeed, ensue, imitate, copy, pursue. Fol¬ 
lower, partisan, disciple, adherent, retainer, pursurer, successor. Folly, silliness, 
foolishness, imbecility, weakness. (Wisdom.) Fond, enamored, attached, affec-> 
donate. (Distant.) Fondness, affection, attachment, kindness, love. (Aversion.) 
Foolhardy, venturesome, incautious, hasty, adventurous, rash. (Cautious.) Fool¬ 
ish, simple, silly, irrational, brainless, imbecile, crazy, absurd, preposterous, ridicu¬ 
lous, nonsensical. (Wise, discreet.) Fop, dandy, dude, beau, coxcomb, puppy, 
jackanapes. (Gentlemen.) Forbear, abstain, refrain, withhold. Force, «., 
strength, vigor, dint, might, energy, power, violence, army, host. Force, v., com¬ 
pel. (Persuade.) Forecast, forethought, foresight, premeditation, prognostica¬ 
tion. Forego, quit, relinquish, let go, waive. Foregoing, antecedent, anterior, 
preceding, previous, prior, former. Forerunner, herald, harbinger, precursor, 
omen. Foresight, forethought, forecast, premeditation. Forge, coin, invent, 
frame, feign, fabricate, counterfeit. Forgive, pardon, remit, absolve, acquit, ex¬ 
cuse, except. Forlorn, forsaken, abandoned, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome. 
Form, #., ceremony, solemnity, observance, rite, figure, shape, conformation, 
fashion, appearance, representation, semblance. Form,?/., make, create, produce, 
constitute, arrange, fashion, mould, shape. Formal, ceremonious, precise, exact, 
stiff, methodical, affected. (Informal, natural.) Former, antecedent, anterior, 
previous, prior, preceding, foregoing. Forsaken, abandoned, forlorn, deserted, 
desolate, lone, lonesome. Forthwith, immediately, directly, instantly, instantane¬ 
ously. (Anon.) Fortitude, endurance, resolution, fearlessness, dauntlessness. 
(Weakness.) Fortunate, lucky, happy, auspicious, prosperous, successful. (Un¬ 
fortunate.) Fortune, chance, fate, luck, doom, destiny, property, possession, 
riches Foster, cherish, nurse, tend, harbor, nurture. (Neglect.) Foul, im¬ 
pure, nasty, filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled. (Pure, clean.) Fractious, cross, 
captious, petulant, touchy, testy, peevish, fretful, splenetic. (Tractable.) Fragile, 
brittle, frail, delicate, feeble. (Strong.) Fragments, pieces, scraps, chips, leav¬ 
ings, remains, remnants. Frailty, weakness, failing, foible, imperfection, fault, 
blemish. (Strength.) Frame, v., construct, invent, coin, fabricate, forge, mold, 
feign, make, compose. Franchise, right, exemption, immunity, privilege, free¬ 
dom, suffrage. Frank, artless, candid, sincere, free, easy, familiar, open, ingenu¬ 
ous, plain. (Tricky, insincere.) Frantic, distracted, mad, furious, raving, frenzied. 
(Quiet, subdued.) Fraud, deceit, deception, duplicity, guile, cheat, imposition. 
[(Honesty.) Freak, fancy, humor, vagary, whim, caprice, crotchet. (Purpose, 
resolution.) Free, a., liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, frank, 
artless, candid, familiar, open, independent, unconfined, unreserved, unrestricted, 
exempt, clear, loose, easy, careless. (Slavish, stingy, artful, costly.) Free, v., 
release, set free, deliver, rescue, liberate, enfranchise, affranchise, emancipate, 
exempt. (Enslave, bind.) Freedom, liberty, independence, unrestraint, famili¬ 
arity, license, franchise, exemption, privilege. (Slavery.) Frequent, often, com¬ 
mon, usual, general. (Rare.) Fret, gall, chafe, agitate, irritate, vex. Friendly, 
amicable, social, sociable. (Distant, reserved, cool.) Frightful, fearful, dreadful, 
dire, direful, terrific, awful, horrible, horrid. Frivolous, trifling, trivial, petty. 
(Serious, earnest.) Frugal, provident, economical, saving (Wasteful, extrava¬ 
gant.) Fruitful, fertile, prolific, productive, abundant, plentiful, plenteous. (Bar¬ 
ren, sterile.) Fruitless, vain, useless, idle, abortive, bootless, unavailing, without 
avail. Frustrate, defeat, foil, balk, disappoint. Fulfill, accomplish, effect, 

44 


STNONTMS AND ANT ON VMS. 

complete. Fully, completely, abundantly, perfectly. Fulsome, coarse, gross 
^^kening, offensive, rank. ^Moderate.) burious, violent, boisterous, vehement, 
dashing, sweeping, rolling, impetuous, frantic, distracted, stormy, angry, raging* 
fierce. (Calm.) Futile, trifling, trivial, frivolous, useless. (Effective.) 

GAIN, n., profit, emolument, advantage, benefit, winnings, earnings. (Loss.) 
Gain, v., get, acquire, obtain, attain, procure, earn, win, achieve, reap, realize, 
reach (Lose.) Gallant, brave, bold, courageous, gay, fine, showy, intrepid, fear¬ 
less, heroic. Galling, chafing, irritating, vexing. (Soothing.) Game, play, 
pastime, diversion, sport, amusement. Gang, band, horde, company, troop, crew. 
Gap, breach, charm, hollow, cavity cleft, crevice, rift, chink. Garnish, embel¬ 
lish, adorn, beautify, deck, decorate. Gather, pick, cull, assemble, muster, infer, 
collect. (Scatter.) Gaudy, showy, flashy, tawdry, gay, glittering, bespangled. 
(Sombre ) Gaunt, emaciated, scraggy, skinny, meagre, lank, attenuated, spare, 
lean, thin. (Well-fed.) Gay, cheerful, merry, lively, jolly, sprightly, blithe. 
(Solemn.) Generate, form, make, beget, produce. Generation, formation, race, 
breed, stock, kind, age, era. Generous, beneficent, noble, honorable, bountiful, 
liberal, free. (Niggardly.) Genial, cordial, hearty, festive, joyous. (Distant, 
cold.) Genius, intellect, invention, talent, taste, nature, character, adept. Gen¬ 
teel, refined, polished, fashionable, polite, well-br, d. (Boorish.) Gentle, placid, 
mild, bland, meek, tame, docile. (Rough, uncouth.) Genuine, real, true, un¬ 
affected, sincere. (False.) Gesture, attitude, action, posture. Get, obtain, earn, 
gain, attain, procure, achieve. Ghastly, pallid, wan, hideous, grim, shocking. 
Ghost, spectre, sprite, apparition, shade, phantom. Gibe, scoff, sneer, flout, jeer, 
mock, taunt, deride. Giddy, unsteady, flighty, thoughtless. (Steady.) Gift, 
donation, benefaction, grant, alms, gratuity, boon, present, faculty, talent. (Pur¬ 
chase.) Gigantic, colossal, huge, enormous, vast, prodigious, immense. (Diminu¬ 
tive.) Give, grant, bestow, confer, yield, impart. Glad, pleased, cheerful, joyful, 
gladsome, gratified, cheering. (Sad.) Gleam, glimmer, glance, glitter, shine, 
flash. Glee, gayety, merriment, mirth, jovialty, jovia'ness, catch. (Sorrow.) 
Glide, slip, slide, run, roll on. Glimmer, v., gleam, flicker, glitter. Glimpse, 
glance, look, glint. Glitter, gleam, shine, glisten, glister, radiate. Gloom, cloud, 
darkness, dimness, blackness, dulncss, sadness. (Light, brightness, joy.) Gloomy, 
lowering, lurid, dim, dusky, sad, glum. (Bright, clear.) Glorify, magnify, cele¬ 
brate, adore, exalt. Glorious, famous, renowned, distinguished, noble, exalted. 
(Infamous.) Glory, honor, fame, renown, splendor, grandeur. (Infamy.) Glut* 
gorge, stuff, cram, cloy, satiate, block up. Go, depart, proceed, move, budge, stir. 
God, creator, lord, almighty, jehovah, omnipotence, providence. Godly, right 1 
eous, devout, holy, pious, religious. Good, benefit, weal, advantage, profit, boon. 
(Evil.) Good, a., virtuous, righteous, upright, just, true. (Wicked, bad.) Gorge, 
glut, fill, cram, stuff, satiate. Gorgeous, superb, grand, magnificent, splendidt 
(Plain, simple.) Govern, rule, direct, manage, command. Government, rule, 
state, control, sway. Graceful, becoming, comely, elegant, beautiful. (Awk 
ward.) Gracious, merciful, kindly, beneficent. Gradual, slow, progressive 
(Sudden.) Grand, majestic, stately, dignified, lofty, elevated, exalted, splendid, 
gorgeous, superb, magnificent, sublime, pompous. (Shabby.) Grant, bestow, im- 
part, give, yield, cede, allow, confer, invest. Grant, gift, boon, donation. Graph¬ 
ic, forcible, telling, picturesque, vivid, pictorial. Grasp, catch, seize, gripe < 
clasp, grapple. Grateful, agreeable, pleasing, welcome, thankful. (Harsh.j 
Gratification, enjoyment, pleasure, delight, reward. (Disappointment.) Grave, 
a., serious, sedate, solemn, sober, pressing, heavy. (Giddy.) Grave, s., tomb 
sepulchre, vault. Great, big, huge, large, majestic, vast, grand, noble, august 
(Small.) Greediness, avidity, eagerness, voracity. (Generosity.) Grief, afflic' 
tion, sorrow, trial, woe, tribulation. (Joy.) Grieve, mourn, lament, sorrow, pain 
hurt, wound, bewail. (Rejoice.) Grievous, painful, afflicting, heavy, baleful 
unhappy. Grind, crush, oppress, grate, harass, afflict. Grisly, terrible, hideous 
grim, ghastly, dreadful. (Pleasing.) Gross, coarse, outrageous, unseemly 
shameful, indelicate. (Delicate.) Group, assembly, cluster, collection, clump 
order, class. Grovel, crawl, cringe, fawn, sneak. Grow, increase, vegetate, ex 
pand, advance. (Decay, diminution.) Growl, grumble, snarl, murmur, complain 
Grudge, malice, rancor, spite, pique, hatred, aversion. Gruff, rough, rugged 

45 


STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 


blunt, rude, harsh, surly, bearish. (Pieasant.) Guile, deceit, fr^ud. (Candor.) 
Guiltless, harmless, innocent. Guilty, culpable, sinful, criminal. 

HABIT, custom, practice. Hail, accost, address, greet, salute, welcome. Hap¬ 
piness, beatitude, blessedness, bliss, felicity. (Unhappiness.) Harbor, haven, 
port. Hard, firm, solid. {Soft.) Hard, arduous, difficult. (Easy.) Harm, in¬ 
jury, hurt, wrong, infliction. (Benefit.) Harmless, safe, innocuous, innocent. 
(Hurtful.) Harsh, rough, rigorous, severe, gruff, morose. (Gentle.) Hasten, 
accelerate, despatch, expedite, speed. (Delay.) Hasty, hurried, ill-advised. 
(Deliberate.) Hateful, odious, detestable. (Lovable.) Hatred, enmity, ill-will, 
rancor. (Friendship.) Haughtiness, arrogance, pride. (Modesty.) Haughty, 
arrogant, disdainful, supercilious, proud. Hazard, risk, venture. Healthy, 
salubrious, salutary, wholesome. (Unhealthy.) Heap, accumulate, amass, pile. 
Hearty, a ., cordial, sincere, warm. (Insincere.) Heavy, burdensome, ponderous, 
weighty. (Light.) Heed, care, attention. Heighten, enhance, exalt, elevate, 
raise. Heinous, atrocious, flagitious, flagrant. (Venial.) Help, aid, assist, re¬ 
lieve, succor. (Hinder.) Heretic, sectary, sectarian, schismatic, dissenter, non¬ 
conformist. Hesitate, falter, stammer, stutter. Hideous, grim, ghastly, grisly. 
(Beautiful.) High, lofty, tall, elevated. (Deep.) Hinder, impede, obstruct, pre¬ 
vent. (Help.) Hint, allude, refer, suggest, intimate, insinuate. Hold, detain, 
keep, retain. Holiness, sanctity, piety, sacredness. Holy, devout, pious, religious. 
Homely, plain, ugly, coarse. (Beautiful.) Honesty, integrity, probity, upright¬ 
ness. (Dishonesty.) Honor, v., respect, reverence, esteem. (Dishonor.) Hope, 
confidence, expectation, trust. Hopeless, desperate. Hot, ardent, burning, fiery. 
(Cold.) However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet. Humble, modest, sub¬ 
missive, plain, unostentatious, simple. (Haughty.) Humble, degrade, humiliate, 
mortify, abase. (Exalt.) Humor, mood, temper. Hunt, seek, chase. Hurtful, 
noxious, pernicious. (Beneficial.) Husbandry, cultivation, tillage. Hypocrite, 
dissembler, impostor, canter. Hypothesis, theory, supposition. 

IDEA , 1 thought, imagination. Ideal, imaginary, fancied. (Actual.) Idle, in¬ 
dolent, lazy. (Industrious.) Ignominious, shameful, scandalous, infamous. 
((Honorable.) Ignominy, shame, disgrace, obloquy, infamy, reproach. Ignorant, 
unlearned, illiterate, uninformed, uneducated. (Knowing.) Ill, n., evil, wicked¬ 
ness, misfortune, mischief, harm. (Good.) Ill, a., sick, indisposed, unwell, dis¬ 
eased. (Well.) Ill-tempered, crabbed, sour, surly, acrimonious. (Good- 
natured.) Ill-will, enmity, hatred, antipathy. (Good-will.) Illegal, unlawful, 
illicit, contraband, illegitimate. (Legal.) illimitable, boundless, immeasurable, 
unlimited, infinite. Illiterate, unlettered, unlearned, untaught, uninstructed. 
(Learned, educated.) Illusion, fallacy, deception, phantasm. Illusory, imagin¬ 
ary, chimerical, visionary. (Real.) Illustrate, explain, elucidate, clear. Illus¬ 
trious, celebrated, noble, eminent, famous, renowned. (Obscure.) Image, 
likeness, picture, representation, effigy. Imaginary, ideal, fanciful, illusory. 
(Real.) Imagine, conceive, fancy, apprehend, think, presume. Imbecility, silli¬ 
ness, senility, dotage. Imitate, copy, ape, mimic, mock, counterfeit. Im¬ 
maculate, unspotted, spotless, unsullied, stainless. (Soiled.) Immediate, 
pressing, instant, next, proximate. Immediately, instantly, forthwith, directly, 
presently. Immense, vast, enormous, huge, prodigious, monstrous. Immunity, 
privilege, prerogative, exemption. Impair, injure, diminish, decrease. Impart, 
reveal, divulge, disclose, discover, bestow, afford. Impartial, just, equitable, un¬ 
biased. (Partial.) Impassioned, glowing, burning, fiery, vehement, intense. 
Impeach, accuse, charge, arraign, censure. Impede, hinder, retard, obstruct, 
prevent. (Help.) Impediment, obstruction, hindrance, obstacle, barrier. (Aid.) 
Impel, animate, induce, incite, instigate, embolden. (Retard.) Impending, 
imminent, threatening. Imperative, commanding, authoritative, despotic. Im¬ 
perfection, fault, blemish, defect, vice. Imperil, endanger, hazard, jeopardize, 
imperious, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, imperative, lordly, overbear¬ 
ing, domineering. Impertinent, intrusive, meddling, officious, rude, saucy, im¬ 
pudent, insolent. Impetuous, violent, boisterous, furious, vehement. (Calm.) 
Impious, profane, irreligious, godless. (Reverent.) Implicate, involve, en¬ 
tangle, embarrass, compromise. Imply, involve, comprise, infold, import, denote. 
Signify. Importance, signification, significance, avail, consequence, weight, 

46 


STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 

gravity, moment. Imposing, impressive, striking, majestic, august, noble, grand. 
(Insignificant.) Impotence, weakness, incapacity, infirmity, frailty, feebleness. 
(Power.) Impotent, weak, feeble, helpless, enfeebled, nerveless, infirm. (Strong.) 
Impressive, stirring, forcible, exciting, affecting, moving. Imprison, incarcer- 
ate, shut up, immure, confine. (Liberate.) Imprisonment, captivity, durance. 
Improve, amend, better, mend, reform, rectify, ameliorate, apply, use, employ. 
(Deteriorate.) Improvident, careless, incautious, imprudent, prodigal, wasteful, 
reckless, rash. (Thrifty.) Impudence, assurance, impertinence, confidence, in¬ 
solence, rudeness. Impudent, saucy, brazen, bold, impertinent, forward, rude, 
insolent, immodest, shameless. Impulse, incentive, incitement, motive, instiga¬ 
tion. Impulsive, rash, hasty, forcible, violent. (Deliberate.) Imputation, 
blame, censure, reproach, charge, accusation. Inadvertency, error, oversight, 
blunder, inattention, carelessness, negligence. Incentive, motive, inducement, 
impulse. Incite, instigate, excite, provoke, stimulate, encourage. Urge, impel. 
Inclination, leaning, slope, disposition, tendency, bent, bias, affection, attachment, 
wish, liking, desire. (Aversion.) Incline, v., slope., lean, slant, tend, bend, turn, 
bias, dispose. Inclose, surround, shut in, fence in, cover, wrap. Include, com-- 
prehend, comprise, contain, embrace, take in. Incommode, annoy, plagueV 
molest, disturb, inconvenience, trouble. (Accomodate.) Incompetent, incapa¬ 
ble, unable, inadequate, insufficient. (Competent.) Increase, v., extend, en¬ 
large, augment, dilate, expand, amplify, raise, enhance, aggravate, magnify, grow. 
(Diminish.) Increase, n., augmentation, accession, addition, enlargement, exten¬ 
sion. (Decrease.) Incumbent, obligatory. Indefinite, vague, uncertain, un¬ 
settled, loose, lax. (Definite.; Indicate, point out, show, mark. Indifference, 
apathy, carelessness, listlessness, insensibility. (Application, assiduity.) Indi¬ 
gence, want, neediness, penury, poverty, destitution, privation. (Affluence.) In¬ 
dignation, anger, wrath, ire, resentment. Indignity, insult, affront, outrage, 
obloquy, opprobrium, reproach, ignominy. (Honor.) Indiscriminate, promis¬ 
cuous, chance, indistinct, confused. (Select, chosen.) Indispensable, essential, 
necessary, requisite, expedient. (Unnecessary, supernumerary.) Indisputable, 
undeniable, undoubted, incontestable, indubitable, unquestionable, sure, infallible. 
Indorse, ratify, confirm, superscribe. Indulge, foster, cherish, fondle. (Deny.) 
Ineffectual, vain, useless, unavailing, fruitless, abortive, inoperative. (Effective.) 
Inequality, disparity, disproportion, dissimilarity, unevenness. (Equality.) In¬ 
evitable, unavoidable, not to be avoided, certain. Infamous, scandalous, shame¬ 
ful, ignominious, opprobrius, disgraceful. (Honorable.) Inference, deduction, 
corollary, conclusion, consequence. Infernal, diabolical, fiendish, devilish, hellish. 
Infest, annoy, plague, harass, disturb. Infirm, weak, feeble, enfeebled. (Robust.) 
Inflcune, anger, irritate, enrage, chafe, incense, nettle, aggravate, imbitter, exas¬ 
perate. (Allay, soothe.) Influence, v., bias, sway, prejudice, prepossess. Influ¬ 
ence, n. t credit, favor, reputation, character, weight, authority, sway, ascendency. 
Infringe, invade, intrude, contravene, break, transgress, violate. Ingenuous, 
artless, candid, generous, open, frank, plain, sincere. (Crafty.) Inhuman, cruet, 
brutal, savage, barbarous, ruthless, merciless, ferocious. (Humane ) Iniquity, 
injustice, wrong, grievance. Injure, damage, hurt, deteriorate, wrong, aggrieve, 
harm, spoil, mar, sully. (Benefit.) injurious, hurtful, baneful, pernicious, dele¬ 
terious, noxious, prejudicial, wrongful, damaging. (Beneficial.) Injustice, wrong, 
iniquity, grievance. (Right.) Innocent, guiltless, sinless, harmless, inoffensive, 
innoxious. (Guilty.) Innocuous, harmless, safe, innocent. (Hurtful.) Inordi¬ 
nate, intemperate, irregular, disorderly, excessive, immoderate. (Moderate.) In¬ 
quiry, investigation, examination, research, scrutiny, disquisition, question, query, 
interrogation. Inquisitive, prying, peeping, curious, peering. Insane, mad, 
deranged, delirious, demented. (Sane.) Insanity, madness, mental aberration, 
lunacy, delirium. (Sanity.) insinuate, hint, intimate, suggest, infuse, introduce, 
ingratiate. Insipid, dull, flat, mav/kish, tasteless, vapid, inanimate, lifeless. 
(Bright, sparkling.) Insolent, rude, saucy, pert, impertinent, abusive, scurrilous, 
opprobrious, insulting, offensive. Inspire, animate, exhilarate, enliven, cheer, 
breathe, inhale. Instability, mutability, fickleness, mutableness, wavering. 
(Stability, firmness.) Instigate, stir up, persuade, animate, incite, urge, stimulate, 
encourage. Instil, implant, inculcate, infuse, insinuate. Instruct, inform, 
teach, educate, enlighten, initial^, Instrumental, conducive, assistant, helping^ 

47 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


ministerial. Insufficiency, inadequacy, incompetency, incapability, deficiency, 
lack. Insult, affront, outrage, indignity, blasphemy. (Honor.) Insulting, in- 
solent, rude, saucy, impertinent, impudent, abusive. Integrity, uprightness, hon¬ 
esty, probity, entirety, entireness, completeness, rectitude, purity. (Dishonesty.) 
Intellect, understanding, sense, brains, mind, intelligence, ability, talent, genius. 
(Body.) Intellectual, mental, ideal, metaphysical. (Brutal.) Intelligible, 
clear, obvious, plain, distinct. (Abstruse.) Intemperate, immoderate, excessive, 
drunken, nimious, inordinate. (Temperate.) Intense, ardent, earnest, glowing, 
fervid, burning, vehement. Intent, design, purpose, intention, drift, view, aim, 
purport, meaning. Intercourse, commerce, connection, intimacy, acquaintance. 
Interdict, forbid, prohibit, inhibit, proscribe, debar, restrain from. (Allow.) In¬ 
terfere, meddle, intermeddle, interpose. Interminable, endless, interminate, 
infinite, unlimited, illimitable, boundless, limitless. (Brief, concise.) Interpose, 
intercede, arbitrate, mediate, interfere, meddle. Interpret, explain, expound, 
elucidate, unfold, decipher. Intimate, hint, suggest, insinuate, express, signify, 
impart, tell. Intimidate, dishearten, alarm, frighten, scare, appal, daunt, cow, 
browbeat. (Encourage.) Intolerable, insufferable, unbearable, insupportable, 
unendurable. Intrepid, bold, brave, daring, fearless, dauntless, undaunted, 
courageous, valorous, valiant, heroic, gallant, chivalrous, doughty. (Cowardly, 
faint-hearted.) Intrigue, plot, cahal, conspiracy, combination, artifice, ruse, 
amour. Intrinsic, real, true, genuine, sterling, native, natural. (Extrinsic.) In¬ 
validate, quash, cancel, overthrow, vacate, nullify, annul. Invasion, incursion, 
irruption, inroad, aggression, raid, fray. Invective, abuse, reproach, railing, cen¬ 
sure, sarcasm, satire. Invent, devise, contrive, frame, find out, discover, design. 
Investigation, examination, search, inquiry, research, scrutiny. Inveterate, 
confirmed, chronic, malignant. (Inchoate.) Insidious, envious, hateful, odious, 
malignant. Invigorate, brace, harden, nerve, strengthen, fortify. (Enervate.) 
Invincible, unconquerable, impregnable, insurmountable. Invisible, unseen, 
imperceptible, impalpable, unperceivable. Invite, ask, call, bid, request, allure, 
attract, solicit. Invoke, invocate, call upon, appeal, refer, implore, beseech. In¬ 
volve, implicate, entangle, compromise, envelop. Irksome, wearisome, tiresome, 
tedious, annoying. (Pleasant.) Irony, sarcasm, satire, ridicule, raillery. Irra¬ 
tional, foolish, silly, imbecile, brutish, absurd, ridiculous. (Rational.) Irregu¬ 
lar, eccentric, anomalous, inordinate, intemperate. (Regular.) Irreligious, 
profane, godless, impious, sacrilegious, desecrating. Irreproachable, blameless, 
spotless, irreprovable. Irresistible, resistless, irrepressible. Irresolute, waver¬ 
ing, undetermined, undecided, vacillating. (Determined.) Irritable, excitable, 
irascible, susceptible, sensitive. (Calm.) Irritate, aggravate, worry, embitter, 
madden, exasperate, issue, v ., emerge, rise, proceed, flow, spring, emanate. 
Issue, n., end, upshot, effect, result, offspring, progeny. 

JADE, harass, weary, tire, worry. Jangle, wrangle, conflict, disagree. Jar¬ 
ring, conflicting, discordant, inconsonant, inconsistent. Jaunt, ramble, excur¬ 
sion, trip. Jealousy, suspicion, envy. Jeopard, hazard, peril, endanger. 
Jest, joke, sport, divert, make game of. Journey, travel, tour, passage. Joy, 
gladness, mirth, delight. (Grief.) Judge, justice, referee, arbitrator. Joyful, 
glad, rejoicing, exultant. (Mournful.) Judgment, discernment, discrimination, 
understanding. Justice, equity, right. Justice is right as established bylaw; 
equity according to the circumstances of each particular case. (Injustice.) Just¬ 
ness, accuracy, correctness, precision. 

KEEP, preserve, save. (Abandon.) Kill, assassinate, murder, slay. Kindred, 
affinity, consanguinity, relationship. Knowledge, erudition, learning, science. 
(Ignorance.) 

LABOR, toil, work, effort, drudgery. (Idleness.) Lack, need, deficiency, 
scarcity, insufficiency.. (Plenty.) Lament, mourn, grieve, weep. (Rejoice.) 
Language, dialect, idiom, speech, tongue. Lascivious, loose, unchaste, lustful, 
lewd, lecherous. (Chaste.) Last, final, latest, ultimate. (First.) Laudable, 
commendable, praiseworthy. (Blamable.) Laughable, comical, droll, ludicrous. 
(Serious.) Lawful, legal, legitimate, licit. (Illegal.) Lead, conduct, guide, 
(follow.) Lean, meagre. (Fat.) Learned, erudite, scholarly. (Ignorant.) 
Leave, v., quit, relinquish. Leave, »., liberty, permission, licence. (Prohibition.) 

48 


5 TNONr MS AND ANTONYMS. 


Life, existence, animation, spirit, vivacity. (Death.) Lifeless, dead, inanimate. 
Lift, erect, elevate, exalt, raise. (Lower.) Light, clear, bright. (Dark.) Light* 
ness, flightiness, giddiness, levity, volatility. (Seriousness.) Likeness, resem¬ 
blance, similarity. (Unlikeness.) Linger, lag, loiter, tarry, saunter. (Hasten.) 
Little, diminutive, small. (Great.) Livelihood, living, maintenance, subsistence, 
support. Lively, jocund, merry, sportive, sprightly, vivacious. (Slow, languid, 
sluggish.) Long, extended, extensive. (Short.) Look, appear, seem. Lose, 
miss, forfeit. (Gain.) Loss, detriment, damage, deprivation. (Gain.) Loud, 
clamorous, high-sounding, noisy. (Low, quiet.) Love, affection, (Hatred.) Low, 
abject, mean. (Noble.) Lunacy, derangement, insanity, mania, madness. 
(Sanity.) Lustre, brightness, brilliancy, splendor. Luxuriant, exuberant. 
(Sparse.) 

MACHINATION, plot, intrigue, cabal, conspiracy. (Artlessness.) Mad, 
crazy, delirious, insane, rabid, violent, frantic. (Sane, rational, quiet.) Madness, 
insanity, fury, rage, frenzy. Magisterial, august, dignified, majestic, pompous, 
stately. Make, form, create, produce. (Destroy.) Malediction, anathema, 
curse, imprecation, execration. Malevolent, malicious, virulent, malignant. 
(Benevolent.) Malice, spite, rancor, ill-feeling, grudge, animosity, ill-will. 
(Benignity.) Malicious, see malevolent. Manacle, v., shackle, fetter, chain. 
(Free.) Manage, contrive, concert, direct. Management, direction, superin¬ 
tendence, care, economy. Mangle, tear, lacerate, mutilate, cripple, maim. 
Mania, madness, insanity, lunacy. Manifest, v., reveal, prove, evince, exhibit, 
display, show. Manifest, a., clear, plain, evident, open, apparent, visible. 
(Hidden, occult.) Manifold, several, sundry, various, divers, numerous. Manly, 
masculine, vigorous, courageous, brave, heroic. (Effeminate.) Manner, habit, 
custom, way, air, look, appearance. Manners, morals, habits, behavior, carriage. 
Mar, spoil, ruin, disfigure. (Improve.) March, tramp, tread, walk, step, space. 
Margin, edge, rim, border, brink, verge. Mark, n., sign, note, symptom, token. 
Indication, trace, vestige, track, badge, brand. Mark, v., impress, print, stamp, 
engrave, note, designate. Marriage, wedding, nuptials, matrimony, wedlock. 
Martial, military, warlike, soldier-like. Marvel, wonder, miracle, prodigy. 
Marvelous, wondrous, wonderful, amazing, miraculous. Massive, bulky, heavy, 
weighty, ponderous, solid, substantial. (Flimsy.) Mastery, dominion, rule, sway, 
ascendancy, supremacy. Matchless, unrivaled, unequaled, unparalleled, peer* 
less, incomparable, inimitable, surpassing. (Common, ordinary.) Material, a., 
corporeal, bodily, physical, temporal, momentous, important. (Spiritual, imma- 
terial.) Maxim, adage, apophthegm, proverb, saying, by-word, saw. Meager, 
poor, lank, emaciated, barren, dry, uninteresting. (Rich.) Mean, a., stingy, 
niggardly, low, abject, vile, ignoble, degraded, contemptible, vulgar, despicable. 
(Generous.) Mean, v., design, purpose, intent, contemplate, signify, denote, in¬ 
dicate. Meaning, signification, import, acceptation, sense, purport. Medium, 
organ, channel, instrument, means. Medley, mixture, variety, diversity, miscel¬ 
lany. Meek, unassuming, mild, gentle. (Proud.) Melancholy, low-spirited, 
dispirited, dreamy, sad. ( Jolly, buoyant.) Mellow, ripe, mature, soft. (Imma¬ 
ture.) Melodious, tuneful, musical, silver, dulcet, sweet. (Discordant) Mem¬ 
orable, signal, distinguished, marked. Memorial, monument, memento, com¬ 
memoration. Memory, remembrance, recollection. Menace, n., threat. Mend, 
repair, amend, correct, better, ameliorate, improve, rectify. Mention, tell, name, 
communicate, impart, divulge, reveal, disclose, inform, acquaint. Merciful, com¬ 
passionate, lenient, clement, tender, gracious, kind. (Cruel.) Merciless, hard¬ 
hearted, cruel, unmerciful, pitiless, remorseless, unrelenting. (Kind.) Merri¬ 
ment, mirth, joviality, jollity, hilarity. (Sorrow.) Merry, cheerful, mirthful, joy¬ 
ous, gay, lively, sprightly, hilarious, blithe, blithesome, jovial, sportive, jolly. 
(Sad.) Metaphorical, figurative, allegorical, symbolical. Method, way, man¬ 
ner, mode, process, order, rule, regularity, system. Mien, air, look, manner, as¬ 
pect, appearance. Migratory, roving, strolling, wandering, vagrant. (Settled, 
sedate, permanent) Mimic, imitate, ape, mock. Mindful, observant, attentive, 
heedful, thoughtful. (Heedless.) Miscellaneous, promiscuous, indiscriminate, 
mixed. ’ Mischief, injury, harm, damage, hurt, evil, ill. (Benefit.) Miscreant, 
caitiff, villain, ruffian. Miserable, unhappy, wretched, distressed, afflicted. 
(Happy.) Miserly, stingy, niggardly, avaricious, griping. Misery, wretched^ 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 

ness, woe, destitution, penury, privation, beggary. (Happiness.) Misfortune, 
calamity, disaster, mishap, catastrophe. (Good luck.) Miss, omit, lose, fail, mis¬ 
carry. Mitigate, alleviate, relieve, abate, diminish. (Aggravate.) Moderate, 
temperate, abstemious, sober, abstinent. (Immoderate.) Modest, chaste, virtu¬ 
ous, bashful, reserved. (Immodest.) Moist, wet, damp, dank, humid. (Dry.) 
Monotonous, unvaried, dull, tiresome, undiversified. (Varied.) Monstrous, 
shocking, dreadful, horrible, huge, immense. Monument, memorial, record, re¬ 
membrancer, cenotaph. Mood, humor, disposition, vein, temper. Morbid, sick, 
ailing, sickly, diseased, corrupted. (Normal, sound.) Morose, gloomy, sullen, 
surly, fretful, crabbed, crusty. (Joyous.) Mortal, deadly, fatal, human. Mo¬ 
tion, proposition, proposal, movement. Motionless, still, stationary, torpid, stag¬ 
nant. (Active, moving.) Mount, arise, rise, ascend, soar, tower, climb, scale. 
Mournful, sad, sorrowful, lugubrious, grievous, doleful, heavy. (Happy.) Move, 
actuate, impel, induce, prompt, instigate, persuade, stir, agitate, propel, push. 
Multitude, crowd, throng, host, mob, swarm. Murder, v., kill, assassinate, slay, 
massacre, despatch. Muse, v., meditate, contemplate, think, reflect, cogitate, 
ponder. Music, harmony, melody, symphony. Musical, tuneful, melodious, 
harmonious, dulcet, sweet. Musty, stale, sour, fetid. (Fresh, sweet.) Mute, 
dumb, silent, speechless. Mutilate, maim, cripple, disable, disfigure. Muti¬ 
nous, insurgent, seditious, tumultuous, turbulent, riotous.. (Obedient, orderly.) 
Mutual, reciprocal, interchanged, correlative. (Sole, solitary.) Mysterious, 
dark, obscure, hidden, secret, dim, mystic, enigmatical, unaccountable. (Open, 
clear.) Mystify, confuse, perplex, puzzle. (Clear, explain.) 

NAKED, nude, bare, uncovered, unclothed, rough, rude, simple. (Covered, 
clad.) Name, v., denominate, entitle, style, designate, term, call, christen. 
Name, n appellation, designation, denomination, title, cognomen, reputation, 
character, fame, credit, repute. Nar-ate, tell, relate, detail, recount, describe, 
enumerate, rehearse, recite. Nasty, filthy, foul, dirty, unclean, impure, indecent, 
gross, vile. Nation, people, community, realm, state. Native, indigenous, in¬ 
born, vernacular. Natural, original, regular, normal, bastard. (Unnatural, forced.) 
Near, nigh, neighboring, close, adjacent, contiguous, intimate. (Distant.) Neces¬ 
sary, needful, expedient, essential, requisite, indispensable. (Useless.) Ne¬ 
cessitate, v., compel, force, oblige. Necessity, need, occasion, exigency, emer¬ 
gency, urgency, requisite. Need, n., necessity, distress, poverty, indigence, want, 
penury. Need, v., require, want, lack. Neglect, z>., disregard, slight, omit, over¬ 
look. Neglect, n., omission, failure, default, negligence, remissness, carelessness, 
slight. Neighborhood, environs, vicinity, nearness, adjacency, proximity. 
Nervous, timid, timorous, shaky. New, fresh, recent, novel. (Old.) News, 
tidings, intelligence, information. Nice, exact, accurate, good, particular, precise, 
fine, delicate. (Careless, coarse, unpleasant.) Nimble, active, brisk, lively, alert, 
quick, agile, prompt. (Awkward.) Nobility, aristocracy, greatness, grandeur, 
peerage. Noble, exalted, elevated, illustrious, great, grand, lofty. (Low.) Noise, 
cry, outcry, clamor, row, din, uproar, tumult. (Silence.) Nonsensical, irrational, 
absurd, silly, foolish. (Sensible.) Notable, plain, evident, remarkable, signal, 
striking, rare. (Obscure.) Note, s., token, symbol, mark, sign, indication, re¬ 
mark, comment. Noted, distinguished, remarkable, eminent, renowned. (Ob¬ 
scure.) Notice, s., advice, notification, intelligence, information. Notice, v., 
mark, note, observe, attend to, regard, heed. Notify, v., publish, acquaint, ap¬ 
prise, inform, declare. Notion, conception, idea, belief, opinion, sentiment. No¬ 
torious. conspicuous, open, obvious, ill-famed. (Unknown.) Nourish, nurture, 
cherish, foster, supply. (Starve, famish.) Nourishment, food, diet, sustenance, 
nutrition. Novel, modern, new, fresh, recent, unused, strange, rare. (Old.) 
Noxious, hurtful, deadly, poisonous, deleterious, baneful. (Beneficial.) Nullify, 
annul, vacate, invalidate, quash, cancel, repeal. (Affirm) Nutrition, food, diet, 
nutriment, nourishment. 

OBDURATE, hard, callous, hardened, unfeeling, insensible (Yielding, tract¬ 
able.) Obedient, compliant, submissive, dutiful, respectful. (Obstinate.) Obese, 
corpulent, fat, adipose, fleshy. (Attenuated.) Obey, v., conform, comply, submit. 
(Rebel, disobey.) Object, s., aim, end, purpose, design, mark, butt. Object, v., 
oppose, except to, contravene, impeach, deprecate. ^(Assent.) Obnoxious, offen¬ 
sive. (Agreeable.) Obscure, undistinguished', unknown. (Distinguished.) 


STNONTMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Obstinate, contumacious, headstrong, stubborn, obdurate. (Yielding.)- Occa¬ 
sion, opportunity. Offense, affront, misdeed, misdemeanor, transgression, tres¬ 
pass. Offensive, insolent, abusive, obnoxious. (Inoffensive.) Office, 
charge, function, place. Offspring, issue, progeny. Old, aged, superannuated, 
ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete, old-fashioned. (Young, new.) Omen, pre¬ 
sage, prognostic. Opaque, dark. (Bright, transparent.) Open, candid, unre¬ 
served, clear, fair. (Hidden, dark.) Opinion, notion, view, judgment, belief, 
sentiment. Opinionated, conceited, egoistical. (Modest.) Oppose, resist, 
withstand, thwart. (Give way.) Option, choice. Order, method, rule, system, 
regularity. (Disorder.) Origin, cause, occasion, beginning, source. (End.) 
Outlive, survive. Outward, external, outside, exterior. (Inner.) Over, above. 
(Under.) Overbalance, outweigh, preponderate. Overbear, bear down, over¬ 
whelm, overpower, subdue. Overbearing, haughty, arrogant, proud. (Gentle.) 
Overflow, inundation, deluge. Overrule, supersede, suppress. Overspread, 
overrun, ravage. Overturn, invert, overthrow, reverse, subvert. (Establish, 
fortify.) Overwhelm, crush, defeat, vanquish. 

PAIN, suffering, qualm, pang, agony, anguish. (Pleasure.) Pallid, pal*, wan. 
(Florid.) Part, division, portion, share, fraction. (Whole.) Particular, exact, 
distinct, odd, singular, strange. (General.) Patient, passive, submissive, meek. 
(Obdurate.) Peace, calm, quiet, tranquillity. (War, riot, trouble, turbulence.) 
Peaceable, pacific, peaceful, quiet. (Troublesome, riotous.) Penetrate, bore, 
pierce, perforate. Penetration, acuteness, sagacity. (Dullness.) People, 
nation, persons, folks. Perceive, note, observe, discern, distinguish. Percep¬ 
tion, conception, notion, idea. Peril* danger, pitfall, snare. (Safety.) Permit, 
allow, tolerate. (Forbid.) Persuade, allure, entice, prevail upon. Physical, 
corporeal, bodily, material. (Mental.) Picture, engraving, print, representation, 
illustration, image. Piteous, doleful, woful, rueful. (Joyful.) Pitiless, see 
merciless. Pity, compassion, sympathy. (Cruelty.) Place, «., spot, site, position, 
post, situation, station. Place, z/., order, dispose. Plain, open, manifest, evi¬ 
dent. (Secret.) Play, game, sport, amusement. (Work.) Please, gratify, paci¬ 
fy. (Displease.) Pleasure, charm, delight, joy. (Pain.) Plentiful, abundant, 
ample, copious, plenteous. (Scarce.) Poise, balance. Positive, absolute, per¬ 
emptory, decided, certain. (Negative.) Possessor, owner, master, proprietor. 
Possible, practical, practicable. (Impossible.) Poverty, penury, indigence, 
need, want. (Wealth.) Power, authority, fotce, strength, dominion. Powerful, 
mighty, potent. (Weak.) Praise, commend, extol, laud. (Blame.) Prayer, 
entreaty, petition, request, suit. Pretense, n., pretext, subterfuge. Prevailing, 
predominant, prevalent, general. (Isolated, sporadic.) Prevent, v., obviate, pre¬ 
clude. Previous, antecedent, introductory, preparatory, preliminary. (Subse¬ 
quent.) Pride, vanity, conceit. (Humility.) Principally, chiefly, essentially, 
mainly. Principle, ground, reason, motive, impulse, maxim, rule, rectitude, in¬ 
tegrity. Privilege, immunity, advantage, favor, prerogative, exemption, right, 
claim. Probity, rectitude, uprightness, honesty, integrity, sincerity, soundness. 
(Dishonesty.) Problematical, uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, dis¬ 
putable, suspicious. (Certain.) Prodigious, huge, enormous, vast, amazing, as¬ 
tonishing, astounding, surp.&ing, remarkable, wonderful. (Insignificant.) Pro¬ 
fession, business, trade, occupation, vocation, office, employment, engagement, 
avowal. Proffer, volunteer, offer, propose, tender. Profligate, abandoned, dis¬ 
solute, depraved, vicious, degenerate, corrupt, demoralized. (Virtuous.) Pro¬ 
found, deep, fathomless, penetrating, solemn, abstruse, recondite. (Shallow.) 
Profuse, extravagant, prodigal, lavish, improvident, excessive, copious, plentiful. 
(Succinct.) Prolific, productive, generative, fertile, fruitful, teeming. (Barren.) 
Prolix, diffuse, long, prolonged, tedious, tiresome, wordy, verbose, prosaic. (Con¬ 
cise, brief.) Prominent, eminent, conspicuous, marked, important, leading. 
(Obscure.) Promiscuous, mixed, unarranged, mingled, indiscriminate. (Select.) 
Prompt, see punctual. Prop, v., maintain, sustain, support, stay. Propa¬ 
gate, spread, circulate, diffuse, disseminate, extend, breed, increase. (Suppress.) 
Proper, legitimate, right, just, fair, equitable, honest, suitable, fit, adapted, meet, 
becoming, befitting, decent, pertinent, appropriate. (Wrong.) Prosper, flourish, 
succeed, grow rich, thrive, advance. (Fail,) Prosperity, well-being, weal, wel¬ 
fare, happiness, good luck. (Poverty.) Proxy, agent, representative, substitute, 

51 


STNONTMS AND ANT ON TMS. 


delegate, deputy. Prudence, carefulness, judgment, discretion, wisdom (Indis- 
cretion.) Prurient, itching, craving, hankering, longing. Puerile, youthful, 
juvenile, boyish, childish, infantile, trifling, weak, silly. (Mature.) Punctilious, 
nice, particular, formal, precise. (Negligent.) Punctual, exact, precise, nice, 
particular, prompt, timely. (Dilatory.) Putrefy, rot, decompose, corrupt, decay. 
Puzzle, v., perplex, confound, embarrass, bewilder, confuse, pose, mystify. (En¬ 
lighten.) 

QUACK, impostor, pretender, charlatan, empiric, mountebank. (Savant.) 
Quaint, artful, curious, far-fetched, fanciful, odd, singular. Qualified, compe¬ 
tent, fitted, adapted. (Incompetent.) Quality, attribute, rank, distinction. 
Querulous, doubting, complaining, fretting, repining. (Patient.) Question, 
query, inquiry, interrogatory. Qu bble, cavil, evade, equivocate, shuffle, prevari¬ 
cate. Quick, lively, ready, prompt, alert, nimble, agile, active, brisk, expeditious, 
adroit, fleet, rapid, swift, impetuous, sweeping, dashing, clever, sharp. (Slow.) 
Quote, note, repeat, cite, adduce. 

RABID, mad, furious, raging, frantic. (Rational.) Race, course, match, pur¬ 
suit, career, family, clan, house, ancestry, lineage, pedigree. Rack, agonize, 
wring, torture, excruciate, distress, harass. (Soothe.) Racy, spicy, pungent, 
smart, spirited, lively, vivacious. (Dull, insipid.) Radiance, splendor, bright¬ 
ness, brilliance, brilliancy, lustre, glare. (Dullness.) Radical, organic, innate, 
fundamental, original, constitutional, inherent, complete, entire. (Superficial. In 
a political sense, uncompromising; antonym, moderate.) Rancid, fetid, rank, 
stinking, sour, tainted, reasty. (Fresh, sweet.) Rancor, malignity, hatred, hos¬ 
tility, antipathy, animosity, enmity, ill-will, spite. (Forgiveness.) Rank, order, 
degree, dignity, nobility, consideration. Ransack, rummage, pillage, overhaul, 
explore, plunder. Ransom, emancipate, free, unfetter. Rant, bombast, fustian, 
cant. Rapacious, ravenous, voracious, greedy, grasping. (Generous.) Rapt, 
ecstatic, transported, ravished, entranced, charmed. (Distracted.) Rapture, 
ecstasy, transport, delight, bliss. (Dejection.) Rare, scarce, singular, uncommon, 
unique. Rascal, scoundrel, rogue, knave, scamp, vagabond. Rash, hasty, pre¬ 
cipitate, foolhardy, adventurous, heedless, reckless, careless. (Deliberate.) Rate, 
value, compute, appraise, estimate, chide, abuse. Ratify, confirm, establish, sub¬ 
stantiate, sanction. (Protest oppose. Rational, reasonable, sagacious, judicious, 
wise, sensible, sound. (Unreasonable ) Ravage, overrun, overspread, desolate, 
despoil, destroy. Ravish, enrapture, enchant, charm, delight, abuse. Raze, de¬ 
molish, destroy, overthrow, ruin, dismantle (Build up.) Reach, touch, stretch, 
attain, gain, arrive at. Ready prepared, ripe, apt, prompt, adroit, handy. (Slow, 
dilatory.) Real, actual, literal, practical, positive, certain, genuine, true. (Un¬ 
real.) Realize, accomplish, achieve, effect, gain, get, acquire, comprehend. 
Reap, gain, get, acquire, obtain. Reason, motive, design, end, proof, cause, 
ground, purpose. Reason, deduce, draw from, trace, infer, conclude. Reason¬ 
able, rational, wise, honest, fair, right, just. (Unreasonable.) Rebellion, insur¬ 
rection, revolt. Recant, recall, abjure, retract, revoke. Recede, retire, retreat, 
withdraw, ebb. Receive, accept, take, admit, entertain. Reception, receiving, 
levee, receipt, admission. Recess, retreat, depth, niche, vacation, intermission. 
Recreation, sport, pastime, play, amusement, game, fun. Redeem, ransom, re¬ 
cover, rescue, deliver, save, free. Redress, remedy, repair, remission, abate¬ 
ment, relief. Reduce, abate, lessen, decrease, lower, shorten, conquer. Re¬ 
fined, polite, courtly, polished, cultured, genteel, purified. (Boorish.) Reflect, 
consider, cogitate, think, ponder, muse, censure. Reform, amend, correct, better, 
restore, improve. (Corrupt ) Reformation, improvement, reform, amendment. 
(Corruption.) Refuge, asylum, protection, harbor, shelter, retreat. Refuse, v. t 
deny, reject, repudiate, decline, withhold. (Accept.) Refuse, s., dregs, dross, 
scum, rubbish, leavings, remains. Refute, disprove, falsify, negative. (Affirm.) 
Reaard, v., mind, heed, notice, behold, view, consider, respect. Regret, s., 
grief, sorrow, lamentation, repentance, remorse. Regular, orderly, uniform, cus¬ 
tomary, ordinary, stated. (Irregular ) Regulate, methodize, arrange, adjust, 
organize, govern, rule. (Disorder.) Reimburse, refund, repay, satisfy, indemni¬ 
fy Relevant, fit, proper, suitable, appropriate, pertinent, apt. (Irrelevant ) Re¬ 
liance, trust, hope, dependence, confidence. (Suspicion ) Relief, succor, aid, 

52 


STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 


help, redress, alleviation. Relinquish, give up, forsake, resign, surrender, emit, 
leave, forego. (Retain.) Remedy, help, relief, redress, cure, specific, reparation. 
Remorseless, pitiless, relentless, cruel, ruthless, merciless, barbarous. (Merciful, 
humane.) Remote, distant, far, secluded, indirect. (Near.) Reproduce, pro¬ 
pagate, imitate, represent, copy. Repudiate, disown, discord, disavow, renounce, 
disclaim. (Acknowledge.) Repugnant, antagonistic, distasteful. (Agreeable.) 
Repulsive, forbidding, odious, ugly, disagreeable, revolting. (Attractive.) Res¬ 
pite, reprieve, interval, stop, pause. Revenge, vengeance, retaliation, requital, 
retribution. (Forgiveness.) Revenue, produce, income, fruits, proceeds, wealth. 
Reverence, n., honor, respect, awe, veneration, deference, worship, homage. 
(Execration.) Revise, review, reconsider. Revive, refresh, renew, renovate, 
animate, resuscitate, vivify, cheer, comfort. Rich, wealthy, affluent, opulent, 
copious, ample, abundant, exuberant, plentiful, fertile, fruitful, superb, gorgeous. 
(Poor.) Rival, n., antagonist, opponent, competitor. Road, way, highway, 
route, cou.se, path, pathway, anchorage. Roam, ramble, rove, wander, stray, 
stroll Robust, strong, lusty, vigorous, sinewy, stout, sturdy, stalwart, able-bodied. 
(Puny.) Rout, v., discomfit, beat, defeat, overthrow, scatter. Route, road, 
course, march way, journey, path, direction. Rude, rugged, rough, uncouth, un¬ 
polished, harsh, gruff, impertinent, saucy, flippant, impudent, insolent, churlish. 
(Polished, polite.) Rule, sway, method, system, law, maxim, precept, guide, for¬ 
mula, regulation, government, standard, test. Rumor, hearsay, talk, fame, 
report, bruit. Ruthless, cruel, savage, barbarous, inhuman, merciless, remorseless, 
relentless, unrelenting. (Considerate.) 

SACRED, holy, hallowed, divine, consecrated, dedicated, devoted. (Profane.) 
Safe, secure, harmless, trustworthy, reliable. (Perilous, dangerous.) Sanction, 
confirm, countenance, encourage, support, ratify, authorize. (Disapprove.) Sane, 
sober, lucid, sound, rational. (Crazy.) Saucy, impertinent, rude, impudent, in¬ 
solent, flippant, forward. (Modest.) Scandalize, shock, disgust, offend, calum¬ 
niate, vilify, revile, malign, traduce, defame, slander. Scanty, bare, pinched, in¬ 
sufficient, slender, meager. (Ample.) Scatter, strew, spread, disseminate, dis¬ 
perse, dissipate, dispel. (Collect.) Secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, sly, 
underhand, latent, private. (Open.) Seduce, allure, attract, decoy, entice, ab¬ 
duct, inveigle, deprave. Sense, discernment, appreciation, view, opinion, feeling, 
perception, sensibility, susceptibility, thought, judgment, signification, import, sig¬ 
nificance, meaning, purport, wisdom. Sensible, wise, intelligent, reasonable, 
sober, sound, conscious, aware. (Foolish.) 8ettle, arrange, adjust, regulate, con¬ 
clude, determine. Several, sundry, divers, various, many. Severe, harsh, 
stern, stringent, unmitigated, rough, unyielding. (Lenient.) Shake, tremble, 
shudder, shiver, quake, quiver. Shallow, superficial, flimsy, slight. (Deep, 
thorough.) Shame, disgrace, dishonor. (Honor.) Shameful, degrading, scan¬ 
dalous, disgraceful, outrageous. (Honorable.) Shameless, immodest, impudent, 
indecent, indelicate, brazen. Shape, form, fashion, mold, model. Share, por¬ 
tion, lot, division, quantity, quota, contingent. Sharp, acute, keen. (Dull.) 
Shine, glare, glitter, radiate, sparkle. Short, brief, concise, succinct, summary. 
(Long.) Show, v„ indicate, mark, point out, exhibit, display. Show, n., exhibi¬ 
tion, representation, sight, spectacle. 8ick, diseased, sickly, unhealthy, morbid. 
(Healthy.) Sickness, «., illness, indisposition, disease, disorder. (Health.) 
Significant, a., expressive, material, important. (Insignificant.) Signification, 
import, meaning, sense. Silence, speechlessness, dumbness. (Noise.) Silent, 
dumb, mute, speechless. (Talkative.) Simile, comparison, similitude. Simple, 
single, uncompounded, artless, plain. (Complex, compound.) Simulate, dis¬ 
simulate, dissemble, pretend. Sincere, candid, hearty, honest, pure, genuine, 
real. (Insincere.) Situation, condition, plight, predicament, state, position. 
Size, bulk, greatness, magnitude, dimension. Slavery, servitude, enthrallment, 
thralldom. (Freedom.) Sleep, doze, drowse, nap, slumber. Sleepy, somnolent. 
(Wakeful.) Slow, dilatory, tardy. (Fast.) Smell, fragrance, odor, perfume, 
scent. Smooth, even, level, mild. (Rough.) Soak, drench, imbrue, steep. 
Social, sociable, friendly, communicative. (Unsocial.) Soft, gentle, meek, 
mild. (Hard.) Solicit, importune, urge. Solitary, sole, only, single. Sorry, 
grieved, poor, paltry, insignificant. (Glad, respectable.) Soul, mind, spirit. 
(Soul is opposed to body, mind to matter.) Sound, v. t healthy, sane. (Unsound.) 

53 


SrNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 


Sound, n., tone, noise, silence. Space, room. Sparse, scanty, thin. (Lux¬ 
uriant.) Speak, converse, talk, confer, say, tell. Special, particular, specific. 
(General.) Spend, expend, exhaust, consume, waste, squander, dissipate. (Save.) 
Sporadic, isolated, rare. (General, prevalent.) Spread, disperse, diffuse, ex¬ 
pand, disseminate, scatter. Spring, fountain, source. Staff, prop, support, stay. 
Stagger, reel, totter. Stain, soil, discolor, spot, sully, tarnish. State, common¬ 
wealth, realm. Sterile, barren, unfruitful. (Fertile.) Stifle, choke, suffocate, 
smother. Stormy, rough, boisterous, tempestuous. (Calm.) Straight, direct, 
right. (Crooked.) Strait, a., narrow, confined. Stranger, alien, foreigner. 
(Friend.) Strengthen, fortify, invigorate. (Weaken.) Strong, robust, sturdy, 
.powerful. (Weak.) Stupid, dull, foolish, obtuse, witless. (Clever.) Subject, 
exposed to, liable, obnoxious. (Lxempt.) Subject, inferior, subordinate. (Su¬ 
perior to, above.) Subsequent, succeeding, following. (Previous.) Substan¬ 
tial, solid, durable. (Unsubstantial.) Suit, accord, agree. (Disagree.) Super¬ 
ficial, flimsy, shallow, untrustworthy. (Thorough.) Superfluous, unnecessary, 
excessive. (Necessary.) Surround, encircle, encompass, environ. Sustain, 
maintain, support. Symmetry, proportion. Sympathy, commiseration, com¬ 
passion, condolence. System, method, plan, order. Systematic, orderly, regu¬ 
lar, methodical. (Chaotic.) 

TAKE, accept, receive. (Give.) Talkative, garrulous, loquacious, communi¬ 
cative. (Silent.) Taste, flavor, relish, savor. (Tastlessness.) Tax, custom, 
duty, impost, excise, toll. Tax, assessment, rate. Tease, taunt, tantalise, tor¬ 
ment, vex. Temporary, a., fleeting, transient, transitory. (Permanent.) Tena¬ 
cious, pertinacious, retentive. Tendency, aim, drift, scope. Tenet, position, 
view, conviction, belief. Term, boundary, limit, period, time. Territory, do¬ 
minion. Thankful, grateful, obliged. (Thankless.) Thankless, ungracious, 
profitless, ungrateful, unthankful. Thaw, melt, dissolve, liquefy. (Freeze.) 
Theatrical, dramatic, showy, ceremonious, meretricious. Theft, robbery, depre¬ 
dation, spoliation. Theme, subject, topic, text, essay. Theory, speculation, 
scheme, plea, hypothesis, conjecture. Therefore, accordingly, consequently, 
hence. Thick, dense, close, compact, solid, coagulated, muddy, turbid, misty, 
foggy, vaporous. (Thin.) Thin, slim, slender, slight, flimsy, lean, attenuated, 
scraggy. Think, cogitate, consider, reflect, ponder, contemplate, meditate, muse.con- 
ceive, fancy, imagine, apprehend, hold, esteem, reckon, consider, regard, deem, be¬ 
lieve, opine. Thorough, accurate, correct, trustworthy, reliable, complete. (Super¬ 
ficial.) Thought, idea, conception, imagination, fancy, conceit, notion, supposition, 
care, provision, consideration, opinion, view, sentiment, reflection, deliberation. 
Thoughtful, considerate, careful, cautious, heedful, contemplative, reflective, 
provident, pensive, dreamy. (Thoughtless.) Thoughtless, inconsiderate, rash, 
precipitate, improvident, heedless. Tie, v., bind, restrain, restrict, oblige, secure, 
unite, join. (Loose.) Tie, n., band, ligament, ligature. Time, duration, season, 
period, era, age, date, span, spell. Tolerate, allow, admit, receive, suffer, per¬ 
mit, let, endure, abide. (Oppose.) Top, summit, apex, head, crown, surface. 
(Bottom, base.) Torrid, burning, hot, parching, scorching, sultry. Tortuous, 
twisted, winding, crooked, indirect. Torture, torment, anguish, agony. Touch¬ 
ing, tender, affecting, moving, pathetic. Tractable, docile, manageable, amen¬ 
able. Trade, traffic, commerce, dealing, occupqjion, employment, office. Tra¬ 
ditional, oral, uncertain, transmitted. Traffic, trade, exchange, commerce, in¬ 
tercourse. Trammel, n., fetter, shackle, clog, bond, chain, impediment, hin¬ 
drance. Tranquil, still, unrufffled, peaceful, quiet, hushed. (Noisy, boisterous.) 
Transaction, negotiation, occurrence, proceeding, affair. Trash, nonsense, 
twaddle, trifles, dross. Travel, trip, ramble, peregrination, excursion, journey, 
tour, voyage. Treacherous, traitorous, disloyal, treasonable, faithless, false¬ 
hearted, perfidious, sly, false. (Trustworthy, faithful.) Trite, stale, old, ordinary, 
commonplace, hackneyed. (Novel.) Triumph, achievement, ovation, victory, 
conquest, jubilation. (Failure, defeat.) Trivial, trifling, petty, small, frivolous, 
unimportant, insignificant. (Important.) True, genuine, actual, sincere, un¬ 
affected, true-hearted, honest, upright, veritable, real, veracious, authentic, exact, 
accurate, correct. Tumultuous, turbulent, riotous, disorderly, disturbed, con¬ 
fused, unruly. (Orderly.) Tune, tone, air, melody, strain. Turbid, foul, thick, 

64 


STJVONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 

muddy, impure, unsettled. (Placid.) Type, emblem, symbol, figure, sign, kin\ 
sort, letter. Tyro, novice, beginner, learner. 

UGLY, unsightly, plain, homely, ill-favored, hideous. (Beautiful.) Umbrage, 
offence, dissatisfaction, displeasure, resentment. Umpire, referee, arbitrator, 
judge, arbiter. Unanimity, accord, agreement, unity, concord. (Discord.) 
Unanimous, agreeing, like-minded. Unbridled, wanton, licentious, dissolute, 
loose, lax. Uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, fitful, equivocal, ambigu¬ 
ous, indistinct, variable, fluctuating. Uncivil, rude, discourteous, disrespectful, 
disobliging. (Civil.) Unclean, dirty, foul, filthy, sullied. (Clean.) Uncom¬ 
mon, rare, strange, scarce, singular, choice. (Common, ordinary.) Uncon¬ 
cerned, careless, indifferent, apathetic. (Anxious.) Uncouth, strange, odd, 
clumsy, ungainly. (Graceful.) Uncover, reveal, strip, expose, lay bare, divest. 
(Hide.) Under, below, underneath, beneath, subordinate, lower, inferior. 
(Above.) Understanding, knowledge, intellect, intelligence, faculty, comprehen¬ 
sion, mind, reason, brains. Undertake, engage in, embark in, agree, promise. 
Undo, annul, frustrate, untie, unfasten, destroy. Uneasy, restless, disturbed, un¬ 
quiet, stiff, awkward. (Quiet.) Unequal, uneven, not alike, irregular, insuffi¬ 
cient. (Even.) Unequaled, matchless, unique, novel, new, unheard of. Un¬ 
fair, wrongful, dishonest, unjust. (Fair.) Unfit, a., improper, unsuitable, incon¬ 
sistent, untimely, incompetent. (Fit.) Unfit, v., disable, incapacitate, disqualify. 
(Fit.) Unfortunate, calamitous, ill-fated, unlucky, wretched, unhappy, miser¬ 
able. (Fortunate.) Ungainly, clumsy, awkward, lumbering, uncouth. (Pretty.) 
Unhappy, miserable, wretched, distressed, afflicted, painful, disastrous, drear, 
dismal. (Happy.) Uniform, regular, symmetrical, equal, even, alike, unvaried. 
(Irregular.) Uninterrupted, continuous, perpetual, unceasing, incessant, end¬ 
less. (Intermittent.) Union, junction, combination, alliance, confederacy, league, 
coalition, agreement, concert. (Disunion, separation.) Unique, unequal, un¬ 
common, rare, choice, matchless. (Common, ordinary.) Unite, join, conjoin, 
combine, concert, add, attach, incorporate, embody, clench, merge. (Separate, 
disrupt, sunder.) Universal, general, all, entire, total, catholic. (Sectional.) 
Unlimited, absolute, undefined, boundless, infinite. (Limited.) Unreasonable, 
foolish, silly, absurd, preposterous, ridiculous. Unrivaled, unequaled, unique. 
Unexampled, incomparable, matchless. (Mediocre.) Unroll, unfold, open, dis¬ 
cover. Un ruly, ungovernable, unmanageable, refractory. (Tractable, docile.) 
Unusual, rare, unwonted, singular, uncommon, remarkable, strange, extraordi¬ 
nary. (Common.) Uphold, maintain, defend, sustain, support, vindicate. (Desert, 
abandon.) Upright, vertical, perpendicular, erect, just, equitable, fair, pure, 
honorable. (Prone, horizontal.) Uprightness, honesty, integrity, fairness, good¬ 
ness, probity, virtue, honor. (Dishonesty.) Urge, incite, impel, push, drive, in¬ 
stigate, stimulate, press, induce, solicit. Urgent, pressing, important, imperative, 
immediate, serious, wanted. (Unimportant.) Usage, custom, fashion, practice, 

E rescription. Use, n., usage, practice, habit, custom, avail, advantage, utility, 
enefit, application. (Disuse, desuetude.) Use, v., employ, exercise, occupy, 
practise, accustom, inure. (Abuse.) Useful, advantageous, serviceable, avail¬ 
able, helpful, beneficial, good. (Useless.) Useless, unserviceable, fruitless, idle, 
profitless. (Useful.) Usual, ordinary, common, accustomed, habitual, wonted, 
customary, general. (Unusual.) Usurp, arrogate, seize, appropriate, assume. 
Utmost, farthest, remotest, uttermost, greatest. Utter, a., extreme, excessive, 
sheer, mere, pure. Utter, v.. speak, articulate, pronounce, express, issue. 
Utterly, totally, completely, wholly, quite, altogether, entirely. 

VACANT, empty, unfilled, unoccupied, thoughtless, unthinking. (Occupied.) 
Vagrant, n., wanderer, beggar, tramp, vagabond, rogue. Vague, unsettled, un¬ 
determined, uncertain, pointless, indefinite. (Definite.) Vain, useless, fruitless, 
empty, worthless, inflated, proud, conceited, unreal, unavailing. (Effectual, 
humble, real.) Valiant, brave, bold, valorous, courageous, gallant. (Cowardly.) 
Valid, weighty, strong, powerful, sound, binding, efficient. (Invalid.) Valor, 
courage, gallantry, boldness, bravery, heroism. (Cowardice.) Value, v., appraise, 
assess, reckon, appreciate, estimate, prize, esteem, treasure. (Despise, condemn.) 
Vanish, disappear, fade, melt, dissolve. Vanity, emptiness, conceit, self-conceit, 
affectedness. Vapid, dull, fiat, insipid, stale, tame. (Sparkling.) Vapor, fume, 

55 


STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 


smoke, mist, fog, steam. Variable, changeable, unsteady, inconstant, -hifting, 
wavering, fickle, restless, fitful. (Constant.) Variety, difference, diversity, 
change, diversification, mixture, medley, miscellany. (Sameness, monotony.) 
Vast, spacious, boundless, mighty, enormous, immense, colossal, gigantic, huge, 
prodigious. (Confined.) Vaunt, boast, brag, puff, hawk, advertise, flourish, 
parade. Venerable, grave, sage, wise, old, reverend. Venial, pardonable, 
excusable, justifiable. (Grave, serious.) Venom, poison, virus, spite, malice, 
malignity. Venture, «., speculation, chance, peril stake. Venture, v., dare, 
adventure, risk, hazard, jeopardize. Veracity, tifc.h, truthfulness, credibility, 
accuracy. (Falsehood.) Verbal, oral, spoken, literal, parole, unwritten. Verdict, 
judgment, finding, decision, answer. Vexation, chagrin, mortification. (Pleasure ) 
Vibrate, oscillate, swing, sway, wave, undulate, thrill. Vice, vileness, corruption, 
depravity, pollution, immorality, wickedness, guilt, iniquity, crime. (Virtue.) 
Vicious, corrupt, depraved, debased, bad, contrary, unruly, demoralized, profli¬ 
gate, faulty. (Virtuous, gentle.) Victim, sacrifice, food, prey, sufferer, dupe, gull. 
Victuals, viands, bread, meat, provisions, fare, food, repast. View, prospect, 
survey. Violent, boisterous, furious, impetuous, vehement. (GentK) Virtu¬ 
ous, upright, honest, moral. (Profligate.) Vision, apparition, ghost* phantom, 
spectre. Voluptuary, epicure, sensualist. Vote, suffrage, voice. Vouch, 
affirm, asseverate, assure, aver. 

WAIT, await, expect, look for, wait for. Wakeful, vigilant, watchful. (Sleepy.) 
Wander, range, ramble, roam, rove, stroll. Want, lack, need. (Abundance.) 
Wary, circumspect, captious. (Foolhardy.) Wash, clean, rinse, wet, moisten, 
stain, tint. Waste, v., squander, dissipate, lavish, destroy, decay, dwiridi:., wither. 
Wasteful, extravagant, profligate. (Economical.) Way, method, plan, system, 
means, manner, mode, form, fashion, course, process, road, route, track, path, 
habit, practice. Wave, breaker, billow, surge. Weak, feeble, infirm. (Strong.) 
Weaken, debilitate, enfeeble, enervate, invalidate. (Strengthen.) Wearisome, 
tedious, tiresome. (Interesting, entertaining.) Weary, harass, jade, tire, fatigue. 
(Refresh.) Weight, gravity, heaviness. (Lightness.) Weight, burden, load. 
Well-being, happiness, prosperity, welfare. Whole, entire, complete, total, 
integral. (Part.) Wicked, iniquitous, nefarious. (Virtuous) Will, wish, desire. 
Willingly, spontaneously, voluntarily. (Unwillingly.) Win, get, obtain, gain, 
procure, effect, realize, accomplish, achieve. (Lose.) Winning, attractive, 
charming, fascinating, bewitching, enchanting, dazzling, brilliant. (Repulsive ) 
Wisdom, prudence, foresight, far-sightedness, sagacity. (Foolishness.) Wit, 
humor, satire, fun, raillery. Wonder, v ., admire, amaze, astonish, surprise. 
Wonder, w., marvel, miracle, prodigy. Word, n., expression, term. Work, 
labor, task, toil. (Play.) Worthless, valueless. (Valuable.) Writer, author, 
penman. Wrong, injustice, injury. (Right.) 

YAWN, gape, open wide. Yearn, hanker after, long for, desire, crave. Yell, 
bellow, cry out, scream. Yellow, golden, saffron-like. Yeip, bark, sharp cry, 
howl. Yet, besides, nevertheless, notwithstanding, however, still, ultimately, at 
last, so far, thus far. Yield, bear, give, afford, impart, communicate, confer, 
bestow, abdicate, resign, cede, surrender, relinquish, relax, quit, forego, give up, 
let go, waive, comply, accede, assent, acquiesce, succumb, submit. Yielding, 
supple, pliant, bending, compliant, submissive, unresisting. (Obstinate.) Yoke, 
v. , couple, link, connect. Yore, long ago, long since. Young, juvenile, inex¬ 
perienced, ignorant, youthful. Youth, boy, lad, minority, adolescence, juvenility. 
Youthful, young, juvenile, boyish, girlish, puerile. (Old.) 

ZEAL, energy, fervor, ardor, earnestness, enthusiasm, eagerness. (Indifference.) 
Zealous, warm, ardent, fervent, enthusiastic, anxious. (Indifferent, careless.) 
Zest, relish, gusto, flavor. (Disgust.) 


Lead in the form of filings, under a pressure of 2,000 atmospheres, or thir¬ 
teen tons to the square inch, becomes compressed into a solid block, in 
which it is impossible to detect the slightest vestige of the original grains 
Under a pressure of 5,000 atmospheres it liquifies. 

56 



THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE 


Facts Astronomical, Geographical, Historical and Statistical. 


A CCORDING to the System of Copernicus (b . 1473 ), the 
Sun was regarded as the center of the universe. The 
planets, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and 
Saturn, revolved round it in circular orbits; the Moon was a satel¬ 
lite of the Earth, spun round it as a center, and accompanied 
it on its annual rotation round the Sun. Since then this view 
has been firmly established in its main principles, but it is now 
known that the Sun itself moves steadily toward the constella¬ 
tion Hercules, and that it is by no means the largest body in the 
universe. The Solar System is known to consist of a central 
Sun, round which all the other members revolve. These consist 
of eight primary planets, viz.: Mercury, Venus, the Earth, 
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune ; twenty secondary 
planets, satellites , or attendants upon the planets, of which the 
Earth has one, Mars two, Jupiter four, Saturn eight, Uranus 
four, and Neptune one ; a number of minor planets or asteroids 
situated between Mars and Jupiter, of which 271 are known; sev¬ 
eral comets, and a great number of small meteoric bodies. 

In their broad general features the planets are all alike. The 
ball or globe-like form is peculiar to all of them, they are all 
dark bodies, deriving light and heat from the sun, and conse¬ 
quently they all reflect the same borrowed light. In common, 
they all perform two motions, the one a spinning or rotatory mo¬ 
tion on an axis, the other a motion of translation, which whirls 
them round the sun. Both these motions are from west to east, 
and the orbits which they describe round the sun are not circu¬ 
lar, as represented by the Copernican System, but assume more 
the form of an oval or ellipse. 

SOME ELEMENTS OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM. 


Names of 
the Planets. 

Diameter 
in miles. 

Periodic 
time. Days. 

Dis. from the 
Sun. Miles. 

Revolves on 
its Axis. 

Moves in its Or¬ 
bit per hour. 

Mercury 

3,200 

88 

37 Mill. 

24 h. 5 m 

110,000 Miles 

Venus . . 

7,700 

224.7 

69 

(( 

23 h.21 m 

83,000 

U 

Earth.. . 

7,916 

36534 

95 

U 

23 h. 56 m 

68,000 

u 

Mars. . 

4,200 

687 

145 

U 

24 h. 39 m 

54,000 

u 

Jupiter. . 

88,000 

4,332)4 

494 

u 

9 h. 56 m 

30,000 

u 

Saturn. . 

75,000 

10,759 

906 

u 

10 h. 29 m 

22,000 

a 

Uranus 

35,000 

30,687 

1,822 

u 

Unknown 

15,000 

u 

Neptune 

38,000 

60,127 

2,853 

u 

U 

12,000 

u 

Moon. . . 

2,180 

Dist. from Earth 

238,000 miles. 

2,280 

u 

Sun .... 

887,000 

1,400,000 times larger than Earth 

Unknown. 


57 

















THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


The circumference of the earth is measured in this way : Sup¬ 
pose two astronomers, A and B, stationed on the same meridian, 
a certain distance apart, and with accurate instruments, should 
make careful observations on a certain star at the moment it 
crossed the meridian ; and A should find the star 16 degrees south 
of the zenith, and B, who is exactly 415 miles south of A, should 
find it only 10 degrees south of the zenith ; there would then be 
a difference of 6 degrees between the two places ; and as they 
are 415 miles apart, one degree must be i-6th of 415 or 69 i-6th 
miles. 

Now, if 1 degree, which is the 360th part of the earth’s cir¬ 
cumference, is 69 1-6th miles, the whole circumference must be 
360 times 69 1-6th, or 24,900 miles. 

It is in this manner that the earth’s magnitude is computed 
very accurately. 

The Nebular Hypothesis, now generally accepted by 
scientists as explaining, as far as possible by human conception, 
the genesis of the heavenly bodies, was first suggested by Her- 
schel, and developed by Laplace. It assumes that the solar sys¬ 
tem was once an enormous mass of gaseous substance. Rapid 
rotation being set up in this gaseous mass, it took the form of a 
disc, and at last, centrifugal force overcoming cohesion, whole 
rings and fragments flew off from this disc, and by centripetal 
force contracted into spheroid masses. As in the original mass, 
the velocity of the outer circle of each body thrown off is greater 
than the inner circle, and this causes each spheroid to revolve on 
its own axis. This process goes on, and the central mass con¬ 
tinues to cool and shrink, until we have at last a central body 
with a number of smaller spheroidal bodies revolving around it 
in orbits the smaller the nearer they are to the central orb. 
Certain points are assumed in this hypothesis to explain the dis¬ 
tribution of matter in our solar system. It is assumed that in the 
throwing off of great masses from the central disk, immense quan¬ 
tities of minute particles were also thrown, which continued to 
revolve, in the same plane with the large mass, around the center 
body. By slow degrees these minute atoms, by the law of gravi¬ 
tation, were aggregated into the mass nearest to them. These 
subordinate aggregations would form with most difficulty nearest 
the large central mass, because of the superior attractive force of 
the latter, wherefore the interior planets—Mercury, Venus, the 
Earth, Mars—are smaller than the two great orbs in the zone be¬ 
yond them. These two enormous planets, Jupiter and Saturn, 
occupy the space where conditions are most favorable to subor¬ 
dinate aggregations, but, beyond them, the gravity of aggregat¬ 
ing material becomes reduced, and so the planets found in the 

58 



THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


outer zone, Uranus and Neptune, are smaller than the planets of 
the middle zone. 


Our Globe and Its Inhabitants. 

The three primary divisions of man, as indicated by Latham, 
are the Indo-European, the Mongolian, and the African. 

I. The Indo-European or CAUCAsicrace originally extended from India across 
Europe, and increasing ever in civilization and intellectual power from age to age, 
has become the dominant one in the world, extending its influence to every part ol 
the earth, supplanting many inferior races, and repeopling wide areas, as in America 
and Australia. 

The Caucasic- race comprises two principal branches—the Aryan and the Semitic. 
A third branch, according to M. de Quatrefages, includes the Caucasians proper, 
Euscarians (Basques), and others. 

Most of the inhabitants of Europe belong to the Aryan Family; they are arranged 
in the following groups : 

1. The Keltic, in the N. W., comprising the Welsh, Gaels, Erse, Manx, and 
Armoricans. 

2. The Italic, chiefly in the S. W. and S., comprising the Italians and other Ro* 
mance nations—French, Spanish, Portuguese, Roumanesch, and Roumanians. 

3. The Thraco-Hellenic, in the S. E., Greeks and Albanians. 

4. The Teutonic, in the N. N. W., and center, comprising the Germans, Scandi* 
navians, Danes, Icelanders, Dutch, Flemings, English. 

5. The Lithuanian, S. E. of the Baltic. 

6. The Slavonic, in the E., comprising the Russians, Poles, Tsekhs, Serbs, Croats, 
Bulgarians, etc. 

The Indo European or Caucasic race in Asia comprises the Hindus, Baluchis, 
Afghans, Iranians (Persia), Galchas (Zarafshan), and the Semitic tribes of Armenia, 
Syria, Arabia, etc. 

II. The Mongolian is divisible into tl.t .^ncnes, ..'wording to geographical 
position, which again form numeroussmalle families. 

1. The Asiatic, comprising the Mongolians of the Chinese Empire, India, and 
Indo-China ; the Kalmucks, adjoining the Turks, who extend from Southern Europe 
far into Central Asia; The Magyars of Hungary; the Yakuts and Samoeids (oi 
Samoyedes) of Siberia; with the Lapps, Finns, and various tribes of East Europe. 

2. The Oceanic Mongolians are composed of two classes. I. The black-skinned 
found in New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, and the islands between New Zealand 
and New Caledonia. II. The yellow, olive or brown race, occupying New Zea¬ 
land, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Moluccas, Philippines, Mada¬ 
gascar, etc. 

3. The American Mongolians comprise a large number of tribes, the chief of which 
in North America are—the Athabaskans, Algonkins, Sioux, Paducas, and Mexicans. 
In South America the Quichuas, Chilians, and Patagonians extend along the west 
coast. The Caribs, Maypures, Brazilians, Moxos, and Chiquitos occupy the north, 
east, and center of the continent. The Eskimos form a connecting link between the 
Asiatic and American branches of this family. 

III. The African, forming the third great division of the human race, is exhibited 
in its purest form by the natives of Western Africa. The Negroes occupy the whole 
central portion of the country from Cape Verd on the west to Khartoom on the east, 
and south to the Congo. South of the Negros are the Bantus (including the Kafirs), 
inhabiting the greater part of Africa between the 4th parallel of N. lat. and the 
Cape. In the S. W. are the Hottentots. Certain dwarfish tribes are found in dif¬ 
ferent parts of the continent, as the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert, the Obongo ol 
the Ogowe basin, and others. The Fulas and Nubas occupy parts of the Soudan; 
the former, in the N. W., extend from the Senegal and Niger towards Lake Tchad ; 
the latter are found in Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, etc. The Gallas, Copts, Somali, 
of the Sahara, Egypt, and East Africa; the Abyssinians ; and the Berbers, Kabylcs, 
Tuareks and other tribes of North Africa, belong to the Hamitic race, which U 
closely allied to the Semitic race. The latter is represented by the Arabs of the N. 
coast, and of the Arabian Peninsula, and by the Tigres and other tribes or Abyssinia, 

59 



THE WORLD’S PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES. 


Countries. 

China. 

British Empire. 

Russian Empire.. 

France and Colonies.... 

United States. 

German Empire.. 

Austro-Hung. Empire... 

Japan. 

Holland and Colonies... 

Turkish Empire.. 

Italy.. 

Spain and Colonies.. 

Sokoto... 

Corea. 

Brazil. 

Mexico. 

Congo Free Slate.. 

Persia. 

Portugal and Colonies... 

Egypt t. 

Sweden and Norway.... 

Morocco. 

Belgium. 

Siam. 

Roumaniaf. 

Colombia. 

Afghanistan.. 

Argentine Republic. 

Madagascar. 

Abyssinia. 

Saxony!. 

Peru.. 

Switzerland. 

Bolivia. 

Bokhara. 

Venezuela. 

Chili. 

Denmark. 

Bulgaria!. 

Greece. 

Wurtemberg!. 

Servia. 

Oman. 

Guatemala. 

Ecuador. 

Tripoli!. 

Transvaal. 

Salvador.. 

Uruguay. 

Paraguay. 

Honduras. 

Nicaragua. 

Dominican Republic.... 

Montenegro. 

Costa Rica.. 

Orange Free State. 

Hayti.. 

Hawaii. 


Population. 

Sq. Miles. 

Capitals. 

Governm’t. 

403.000.00U 

4,469,200 

Pekin. 

Abs. Desp 

320,676,000 

9,079,711 

London . 

Lim. Mon 

102,970,000 

8,644,100 

St. Petersburg.. 

Abs. Mon 

63,672,048 

970,477 

Paris. 

Republic 

*02.622,250 

3,602,990 

Washington. 

Republic 

46,852,450 

212,028 

Berlin. 

Lim. Mon 

39,206,052 

261,591 * 

Vienna. 

Lim. Mon 

36,700,118 

147,669 

Tokio. 

Lim. Mon 

33,042,238 

778,187 

The Hague. 

Lim, Mon 

32,000,000 

1,731,280 

Constantinople. 

Abs. Mon 

29.699,785 

111,410 

Rome. 

Lim. Mon 

24,873,621 

361,953 

Madrid. 

Lim. Mon 

12,600,000 

178,000 

Sokoto. 

Abs. Desp 

10,519,000 

91,430 

Seul. 

Abs. Desp 

10 ,200,000 

3,219,000 

Rio de Janeiro. 

Lim. Mon 

10,007,000 

8 ,000,000 

7,653,600 

751,177 

Mexico. 

Republic 
Free State 

636,000 

Teheran. 

Abs. Desp 

7,249,050 

240,691 

Lisbon. 

Lfm Mon 

6,806,381 

494,000 

Cairo.. 

Abs. Mon 

6,554,448 

295,714 

Stockholm. 

Lim. Mon 

6,500,000 

314,000 

Fez. 

Abs. Desp 

5,853,278 

11,373 

Brussels. 

Lim. Mon 

5,700,000 

280,550 

Bangkok. 

Abs. Desp 

5,376,000 

46,314 

Bucharest. 

Lim. Mon 

4,000,000 

331,420 

Bogota.. 

Republic 

4,000,000 

279,000 

Cabul. 

Abs. Desp 

3,026,000 

609,386 

Buenos Ayres... 

Republic 

3,000,000 

228,570 

Antananarivo. . 

Abs. Desp 

3,000,000 

129,000 


Abs. Desp 

2,972,805 

5,789 

Dresden. 

Lim. Mon 

2,970,000 

405,010 

Lima. 

Republic 

2,906,752 

15,981 

Berne.. 

Republic 

2,325,000 

481,600 

La Paz.. 

Republic 

2,130,000 

92,300 

Samarcand.. 

Abs. Desp 

2,121,988 

566,159 

Caracas. 

Republic 

2,115,340 

307,525 

Santiago. 

Republic 

2 045.179 

14,842 

24,700 

Copenhagen . 

Lim. Mon 

2,007.919 

Sofia. 

Lim. Mon 

1,979,453 

24,977 

Athens .. 

Lim. Mon 

1,971,118 

7,531 

Stuttgart. 

Lim. Mon 

1,820,000 

18,757 

Belgrade. 

Lim. Mon 

1,600,000 

81,000 

Muscat. . 

Abs. Mon 

1,278,311 

46,774 

New Guatemala. 

Republic 

1,146,000 

248,370 

Quito. 

Republic 

1 ,010,000 

399,000 

Tripoli. 

Abs. Mon 

800,000 

110,193 

Pretoria. 

Republic 

554,000 

7,228 

San Salvador . 

Republic 

520,536 

72,112 

Montevideo. 

Republic 

476,000 

92,000 

Asuncion. 

Republic 

458,000 

42,658 

Tegucigalpa.... 

Republic 

400,000 

51,660 

Managua. 

Republic 

300,000 

20,596 

San Domingo . 

Republic 

245,380 

3,486 

Cetigno. 

Abs. Mon 

180,000 

19,985 

San Jose. 

Republic 

133,518 

41,484 

Bloemfontein. 

Republic 

93,200 

1 66,097 

29,830 

6,587 

Port-au-Prince. 

Republic 
Lim. Mon 

Honolulu. 


! Also enumerated with the Turkish Empire. 
60 


tin- 


* Official census, 1890. 

eluded in German Empire. 

































































































































THE GENSUS OF 1890. 


THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES- 
OFFICIAL TABULATION. 

The population of the United States on June i, 1890, 3s shown 
by the official count, completed in 1891, exclusive of white persons 
in the Indian Territory, Indians on reservations, and Alaska, was 
62,622,250. The following comparative table gives the figures for 
each State. The black figures after the name of the State show that 
State’s rank as regards population. New York still heads the list, 
as in 1880, and is followed by Pennsylvania. Illinois changes 
places with Ohio, and is now third. Of the other changes in the 
list the most marked are those of Texas, which rises from No. 11 
to No. 7; Kentucky, which drops from 8 to 11; Minnesota, which 
rises from 26 to 20; Nebraska, which rises from 30 to 26; Mary¬ 
land, which drops from 23 to 27; Colorado, which rises from 35 
to 31; Vermont, which drops from 32 to 36; Washington, which 
rises from 42 to 34; Delaware, which drops from 38 to 42; Nevada, 
which drops from 43 to 49, and Arizona, which drops from 44 to 48. 


STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

POPULATION 

• 

INCREASE 

FROM 1880 

TO 1800. 

INCRCASe 

FROM 1 870 

TO ieao. 

1890 . 

1880 . 

1870 . 

Ptrcentage. 

Percentage. 

The United States 


62,622,250 

50,155,783 

38,558,371 

24.86 

30.08 

North Atlantic Div ... 

17,401,545 

14,507,407 

12,298,730 

19-95 

17 .96 

M aine. 

30 

661,086 

648,936 

626,915 

1.87 

3 . 5 i 

New Hampshire.... 

33 

376,530 

346,991 

318,300 

8.51 

9.01 

Vermont. 

36 

332,422 

332,286 

330,551 

0.04 

0.52 

Massachusetts. 

6 

2,238,943 

1,783,085 

i, 457 , 35 i 

25-57 

22.35 

Rhode Island. 

35 

345-506 

276,531 

217,353 

24.94 

27.23 

Connecticut. 

29 

746,258 

622,700 

537,454 

19.84 

15-86 

New York. 

1 

5 . 997.853 

5,082,871 

4 , 382,759 

18.00 

15-97 

New Jersey. 

18 

1 . 444.933 

1,131,116 

906,096 

27.74 

24.83 

Pennsylvania. 

2 

5,258,014 

4,282,891 

3 , 52 i, 95 i 

22.77 

21.6l 

South Atlantic Div 

. . . 

8,857,920 

7 , 597,197 

5 , 853 , 6 io 

16.59 

29.79 

Delaware. 

42 

168,493 

146,608 

125,015 

14-93 

17.27 

Maryland. 

27 

1,042,390 

934,943 

780,894 

11.49 

19-73 

District of Columbia 

39 

230,392 

177,624 

131,700 

29.71 

34-87 

Virginia . 

15 

1,655,980 

1,512,565 

1,225,163 

9.48 

23.46 

West Virginia. 

28 

762,794 

618,457 

442,014 

23-34 

39-92 

North Carolina. 

16 

i, 6 i 7,947 

1 , 399,750 

1,071,361 

15-59 

30.65 

South Carolina. 

23 

1,151,149 

995,577 

705,606 

15-63 

41.10 

Georgia. 

12 

1 , 837,353 

1,542,180 

1,184 ID 9 

19.14 

30.24 

Florida. 

32 

391,422 

269,493 

187,748 

45-24 

43-54 


61 



























































THE CENSUS OF 1890. 


POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES .—( Continued .) 


STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

POPOLATION 


| increase: 

FROM 1800 

TO 1890. 

INCREASE 

FROM 1070 

TO 1880. 

1890 . 

1880 . 

1870 . 

I Percentage. 

Percentage. 

Northern Central Div. 

22,362,279 

17,364,111 

12,981,111 

28.78 

33-76 

Ohio. . 

. 4 

3,672,316 

3,198,062 

2,665,260 

14.83 

19.99 

Indiana . 

. 8 

2,192,404 

1,978,301 

1,680,637 

xo.82 

17.71 

Illinois. 

. 3 

3.826,351 

3,077,871 

2,539,891 

24.32 

21.18 

Michigan. 

. 9 

2,093,889 

1,636,937 

1,184,059 

27.92 

38.25 

Wisconsin. 

.14 

1,686,880 

i, 3 i 5,497 

1,054,670 

28.23 

24-73 

Minnesota. 

.20 

1,301,826 

78 o ,773 

439,706 

66.74 

77-57 

Iowa. 

.10 

1,911,896 

1,624,615 

1,194,020 

17.68 

36.06 

Missouri. 

. 5 

2,679,184 

2,168,380 

1,721,295 

23-56 

25-97 

North Dakota. 

41 

182,719 

36,909 


395.05 1 


South Dakota. 

.37 

328,808 

98,268 

r 14,101 

234.60 f 


Nebraska. 

.26 

1,058,910 

452,402 

122,993 

134-06 

267.83 

Kansas. 

.19 

1,427,096 

996,096 

364,399 

43-27 

173-35 

Southern Central Div. 

10,972,893 

8 , 9 i 9 , 37 i 

6,434,410 

23.02 

38.62 

Kentucky. 

.11 

1,858,635 

1,648,690 

1,321,011 

12.73 

24.81 

Tennessee. 

.13 

1,767,518 

1 , 542,359 

1,258,520 

14.60 

22.55 

Alabama. 

.17 

1,513,017 

1,262,505 

996,992 

19.84 

26.63 

Mississippi. 

21 

1,289,600 

i,i 3 L 597 

827,922 

13.96 

36.68 

Louisiana. 

25 

1,118,587 

939,946 

726,915 

19.01 

29.31 

Texas . 

. 7 

2,235 523 

i, 59 i ,749 

818,579 

40.44 

94-45 

Indian Territory (b). 







Oklahoma. 


^61,834 





Arkansas. 

.24 

1,128,179 

802,525 

484,471 

40.58 

65-65 

Western Div . 


3,027,6x3 

1,767,697 

990,5x0 

71.27 

78.46 

Montana. 


132,159 

39 ,i 59 

20,595 

237-49 

90.14 

Wyoming. 

.47 

60,705 

20,789 

9,118 

192.01 

128.00 

Colorado. 

.31 

412,198 

194,327 

39,864 

112.12 

387.47 

New Mexico. 

.43 

153,593 

119,565 

91,874 

28.46 

30.14 

Arizona. 


59,620 

40,440 

9,658 

47-43 

318.72 

Utah. 


207,905 

143,963 

86,786 

44.42 

65.88 

Nevada . 

.49 

45 - 76 i 

62,266 

42,491 

#26.51 

46.54 

Idaho . 

Alaska ( d ). 

.45 

84,385 

32,610 

14,999 

158.77 

IX 7 - 4 I 

Washington. 

.34 

349,390 

75 ,n 6 

23,955 

365-13 

213-57 

Oregon . 

.38 

313,767 

174,768 

90,923 

79-53 

92.22 

California. 

.22 

1,208,130 

864,694 

560,247 

39-72 

54-34 


a Decrease. 

b The number of white persons in the Indian Territory is not included in 
this table. The total Indian population of the United States, exclusive of 
Alaska, but including 32,567 counted in the general census, being the taxed or 
taxable Indians, numbers 249,273. 

c Including 5,337 persons in Greer County (in Indian Territory) claimed by 
Texas. 

d The number of white persons in Alaska is not included in this table, as 
the census of Alaska, which was made a subject of special investigation by 
law, has not yet been completed. 


62 













































































POPULATION OF CITIES. 

Fifty Principal Cities of the United States in tSQO, 
In the Order of their Rank. 


CITIES. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES. 

1890. 

1880. 

New York, N. Y .... 

• I.5I5,3°i 

1,206,299 

Denver, Colo. 

106,713 

35,629 

Chicago, Ill. 

.1,099,850 

503,185 

Indianapolis, Ind .... 

105,436 

75,056 

Philadelphia, Pa.... 

.1,046,964 

847,170 

Allegheny, Pa. 

105,287 

78,682 

Brooklyn, N. Y. ... 

• 806,343 

566,663 

Albany, N. Y. 

94,923 

90,758 

St. Louis, Mo. 

• 45L770 

350,518 

Columbus, Ohio. 

88,150 

51,647 

Boston, Mass. 

. 448,477 

362,839 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

88,143 

5L792 

Baltimore, Md. 

• 434,439 

33 2 ,3i3 

Worcester, Mass. 

84,655 

58,291 

San Francisco, Cal.. 

• 298,997 

233,959 

Toledo, Ohio. 

8 i ,434 

50,137 

Cincinnati, Ohio .... 

. 296,908 

255,139 

Richmond, Va. 

81,388 

63,600 

Cleveland, Ohio. 

■ 261,353 

160,146 

New Haven, Conn ... 

81,298 

62,882 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

. 255,664 

155,134 

Paterson, N. J. 

78,347 

51,031 

New Orleans, La.... 

. 242,039 

216,090 

Lowell, Mass. 

77,696 

59,475 

Pittsburg, Pa. 

. 238,617 

156,389 

Nashville, Tenn. 

76,168 

43,350 

Washington, D. C... 

• 230,392 

177,624 

Scranton, Pa. 

75,215 

45,850 

Detroit, Mich. 

. 205,876 

116,340 

Fall River, Mass. 

74,398 

48,961 

Milwaukee, Wis. 

. 204,468 

115,587 

Cambridge, Mass.... 

70,028 

52,669 

Newark, N. J. 

. 181,830 

136,508 

Atlanta, Ga. 

65,533 

37,409 

.Minneapolis, Minn.. 

. 164,738 

46,887 

Memphis, Tenn. 

64,495 

33,592 

lersey City, N. J ... 

. 163,003 

120,722 

Wilmington, Del. 

61,431 

42,478 

Louisville, Ky. 

. 161,129 

123,758 

Dayton, Ohio. 

61,220 

38,678 

Omaha, Neb. 

. 140,452 

3°,5 I 8 Troy, N. Y. 

60,956 

56,747 

Rochester, N. Y. 

. 133,896 

89,366 Grand Rapids, Mich. 

60,278 

32,016 

Saint Paul, Minn.... 

• 133,156 

4 I >473|R ea 6ing, Pa. 

58,661 

43,278 

Kansas City, Mo.... 

• *132,716 

55,785,Camden, N. J. 

58,3F3 

41,659 

Providence, R. I.... 

• 132,146 

io4,857|Trenton, N. J. 

57,458 

29,910 


Cities and Towns of 8,000 and over in 1890. 


Arranged Alphabetically and Compared with the Census of 1880 . 


CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES AND TOWNS. 

O 

o> 

00 

M 

1880. 

Adams, Mass. 

9,213 

5,59i 

Athens, Ga.. 

8,639 

6,099 

Adrian, Mich. 

8,756 

7,849 

Atlanta, Ga. 

65,533 

37,409 

Akron, Ohio. 

27,601 

16,512 

Atlantic City, N. J ... 

13,055 

5,477 

Alameda, Cal. 

11,165 

5,7o8 

Auburn, Me. 

11,250 

9,555 

Albany, N. Y. 

94,923 

90,758 

Auburn, N. Y. 

25,858 

21,924 

Alexandria, Va. 

14,339 

13,659 

Augusta, Ga. 

33,300 

21,891 

Allegheny, Pa. 

105,287 

78,682 

Augusta, Me. 

10,527 

8,665 

Allentown, Pa. 

25,228 

18,063 

Aurora, Ill. 

19,688 

11,873 

Alpena, Mich. 

11,283 

6,153 

Austin, Texas. 

14,476 

11,013 

Alton, Ill. 

10,294 

8,975 

Baltimore, Md. 

434,439 

332,313 

Altoona, Pa. 

30,337 

19,710 

Bangor, Me. 

Bath, Me. 

19,103 

16,856 

Amesbury, Mass. 

9,798 

3,355 

8,723 

7,874 

Amsterdam, N. Y.... 

17,336 

9,466 

Baton Rouge, La .... 

10,478 

7,i97 

Anderson, Ind. 

10,741 

4,126 

Battle Creek, Mich... 

13,197 

7,063 

Ann Arbor, Mich. 

9.43 1 

8,061 

Bay City, Mich. 

27,839 

20,693 

Anniston, Ala. 

9,876 

942 

Bayonne, N. J. 

19,033 

9,372 

Appleton, Wis. 

11,869 

8,005 

Beatrice, Neb. 

13,836 

2,447 

Arkansas City, Kans. 

8,347 

1,012 

2,6l6 

Beaver Falls, Pa. 

Bellaire, Ohio. 

Belleville, Ill. 

9,735 

5,104 

Asheville, N. C. 

10,235 

9,956 

9,934 

15,361 

8,025 

10,683 




Ashtabula, Ohio .... 

8,338 

4,445 

Beverly, Mass. 

10,821 

8,456 

Atchison, Kans. 

13,963 

15,105 

Biddeford, Me. 

14,443 

12,651 


* Includes 13,048 which, by> 
outside the limits. 


recent decision of Missouri 


63 


Supreme Court, is now 

























































































Ulties and Towns or over 8,000 Population — Continued. 


CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

Binghamton, N. Y... 

35 »oo 5 

17,317 

Denver, Colo. 

106,713 

35,629 

Birmingham, Ala. 

26,178 

3,086 

Des Moines, Iowa.... 

5 o ,°93 

22,408 

Bloomington, Ill. 

20,048 

17,180 

Detroit, Mich. 

205,876 

116,340 

Boston, Mass. 

448,477 

362,839 

Dover, N. H. 

12,790 

11,687 

Braddock, Pa. 

8,561 

3 , 3 io 

Dubuque, Iowa. 

30 , 3 ” 

22,254 

Bradford, Pa. 

10,514 

9.197 

Duluth, Minn. 

33,”5 

3 , 48.3 

Bridgeport, Conn. 

48,866 

27,643 

Dunkirk, N. Y. .. 

9,416 

7,248 

Bridgeton, N. J. 

11,424 

8,722 

Dunmore, Pa. 

8, 3*5 

5 ,i 5 i 

Brockton, Mass. 

27,294 

13,608 

Fast Liverpool, Ohio. 

10,956 

5,568 

Brookline, Mass. 

12,103 

8,057 

Easton, Pa. 

14,481 

11,924 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 

806,343 

566,663 

East Portland, Ore... 

10,532 

2,934 

Brunswick, Ga. 

8,459 

2,891 

East Providence, R. I 

8,422 

5,056 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

255,664 

155,134 

East St. Louis, Ill.... 

15,169 

9,185 

Burlington, Iowa. 

22,565 

19,450 

Eau Claire, Wis. 

17,415 

10,119 

Burlington, N. J. 

8,222 

6,090 

Elgin, Ill. 

17,823 

8,787 

Burlington, Vt. 

14,590 

11,365 

Elizabeth City, N. J .. 

37,764 

28,229 

Butler, Pa. 

8,734 

3,163 

Elkhart, Ind. 

11,360 

6,953 

Butte, Mont. 

10,723 

3,363 

Elmira. N. Y. 

29,708 

20,541 

Cairo, III. 

10,324 

9,011 

El Paso, Texas. 

10,338 

736 

Cambridge, Mass.... 

70,028 

52,669 

Erie, Pa. 

40,634 

27,737 

Camden, N. J. 

58,313 

41,659 

Evansville, Ind. 

50,756 

29,280 

Canton, Ohio. 

26,189 

12,258 

Everett, Mass. 

11,068 

4 ,i 59 

Carbondale, Pa. 

10,833 

7 , 7 M 

Fall River, Mass. 

74,398 

48,961 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa.. 

18,020 

10,104 

Findlay, Ohio. 

18,553 

4,633 

Charlston, S. C. 

54,955 

49,984 

Fitchburg, Mass. 

22,037 

12,429 

Charlotte, N. C. 

ii ,557 

7,094 

Flint, Mich. 

9,803 

8,409 

Chattanooga, Tenn... 

29,100 

12,892 

Flushing, N. Y. 

10,868 

a 6,68 3 

Chicago, Ill.i 

,099,850 

503,185 

Fond du Lac, \Vis.... 

12,024 

13,094 

Chicopee, Mass. 

14,050 

11,286 

Fort Scott, Kans. 

11,946 

5,372 

Chillicothe, Ohio. 

11,288 

10,938 

Fort Smith, Ark. 

ii, 3 H 

3,099 

Chippewa Falls, \Vis. 

8,670 

3,982 

Fort Wayne, Ind. 

35,393 

26,880 

Chelsea, Mass. 

27,909 

21,782 

Fort Worth, Texas... 

23,076 

6,663 

Chester, Pa. 

20,226' 

14,997 

Framingham, Mass... 

9,239 

6,235 

Cheyenne, Wyo. 

11,690 

3,456 

Frederick, Md. 

8,193 

8,659 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 

296,908 

255,139 

Freeport, Ill. 

10,189 

8,516 

Cleveland, Ohio. 

261,353 

160,146 

Fresno, Cal. 

10,818 

1,112 

Clinton, Iowa . 

13,619 

9.052 

Galesburg, Ill. 

15,264 

n ,437 

Clinton, Mass. 

10,424 

8,029 

Galveston, Texas .... 

29,084 

22,248 

Cohoes, N. Y. 

22,509 

19,416 

Gardner, Mass. 

8,424 

4,988 

Colorado Spr’gs, Colo 

I I, 140 

4,226 

Gloucester, Mass. ... 

24,651 

19,329 

Columbia, Pa. 

io ,599 

8,312 

Gloversville, N. Y_ 

13,864 

7 A 33 

Columbia, S. C. 

15,353 

10,046 

Grand Rapids, Mich. 

60,278 

32,016 

Columbus, Ga. 

17,303 

10,123 

Green Bay, Wis. 

9,069 

7,464 

Columbus, Ohio. 

88,150 

51,647 

Greenville, S. C. 

8,607 

6,160 

Concord, N. H. 

17,004 

13.843 

Greenwich, Conn. 

10,131 

7,892 

Corning, N. Y. 

8,550 

4,802 

Hagerstown, Md. 

10,118 

6,627 

Council Bluffs, Iowa.. 

2 i ,474 

18,063 

Hamilton, Ohio. 

17,565 

12,122 

Covington, Ky. 

37,371 

29,720 

Hannibal, Mo. 

12,857 

11,074 

Cranston, R. I. 

8,099 

5,940 

Harrisburg, Pa. 

39,385 

30^62 

Cumberland, Md. 

12,729 

10,693 

Harrison, N. J. 

8,338 

6,898 

Cumberland, R. I- 

8,090 

6,445 

Hartford, Conn. 

53, 2 30 

42,015 

Dallas, Texas. 

38,067 

10,358 

Hastings, Neb. 

13,584 

2,817 

Danbury, Conn. 

16,552 

11,666 

Haverhill, Mass. 

27,412 

18,472 

Danville, Ill. 

n, 49 i 

7,733 

Hazelton, Pa.. 

11,872 

6,935 

Danville, Va. 

10,305 

7,526 

Helena, Mont. 

13,834 

3,624 

Davenport, Iowa. 

26,872 

21,831 

Henderson, Ky. 

8,835 

5,365 

Dayton, Ohio. 

61,220 

33,678 

Hoboken, N. J. 

43,648 

30,999 

Decatur, Ill. 

19,841 

9,547 

Holyoke, Mass. 

35,637 

21,915 

Delaware, Ohio. 

8,224 

6,894 

Hornellsville, N. Y... 

10,006 

8,195 

Denison, Texas. 

10,958 

3,975 

Hot Springs, Ark. 

8,086 

3.554 


64 






































































































Cities and Towns of over 8,000 Population — Continued. 


CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

Houston, Texas. 

27,557 

16,513 

Maccn, Ga. 

Madison, Ind. 

22,746 

12,749 

Hudson, N. Y. 

9,970 

8,670 

8,937 

8,945 

Huntington, W. Va .. 

10,108 

3,174 

Madison, Wis. 

13,426 

10,324 

Hutchinson, Kans ... 

8,682 

1,540 

Mahanoy, Pa. 

11,286 

7,181 

Hyde Park, Mass.... 

10,193 

7,088 

Malden, Mass. 

23,03 1 

12,017 

Indianapolis, Ind __ 

105,436 

75,056 

Manchester, Conn.... 

8,222 

6,462 

Ironton, Ohio. 

Iron Mountain, Mich. 

io ,939 

8,599 

8,857 

Manchester, N. H.... 
Manchester, Va. 

44,126 

9.246 

32,630 

5,729 

Ishpeming, Mich. 

11,197 

6,039 

Manistee, Mich. 

12,812 

6 , 93 ° 

Ithaca, N. Y. 

11,079 

9,105 

Mankato, Minn. 

8,838 

5 , 55 o 

Jackson, Mich. 

20,798 

16,105 

Mansfield, Ohio. 

0,473 

9,859 

Jackson, Tenn. 

10,039 

5,377 

Marblehead, Mass... 

8,202 

7,467 

Jacksonville, Fla. 

17,201 

7,650 

Marietta, Ohio. 

8,273 

5,444 

Jacksonville, 111 . 

10,740 

10,927 

Marinette, Wis. 

11,523 

2,750 

Jamestown, N. Y. 

16,038 

9,357 

Marion, Ind. 

8,769 

3> i8 2 

3,899 

Janesville, Wis. 

10,836 

9,018 

Marion, Ohio. 

8,327 

Jeffersonville, Ind.... 

10,666 

9,357 

Marlborough, Mass... 

13,805 

TO,I27 

Jersey City, N. J.... 

163,003 

120,722 

Marquette, Mich. 

9,093 

4,690 

Johnston, R. I. 

9.778 

5,765 

Marshalltown, Iowa.. 

8,914 

6,240 

Johnstown, Pa. 

21,805 

8,380 

Massillon, Ohio. 

10,092 

6,836 

Joliet, Ill. 

23,264 

11,657 

Meadville, Pa. 

9,520 

8,860 

Joplin, Mo. 

9.943 

7,038 

Medford, Mass. 

11,079 

7,573 

Kalamazoo, Mich. 

17.853 

11,937 

5,651 

Melrose, Mass. 

8,519 

4,560 

Kankakee, Ill. 

9.025 

Memphis, Tenn. 

Menominee, Mich.... 

64,495 

33,592 

Kansas City, Kans_ 

38,316 

3,20c 

10,630 

3,288 

Kansas City, Mo. 

132,716 

55,785 

Meriden, Conn. 

21,652 

15,540 

Kearney, Neb. 

8,074 

1,782 

Meridian, Miss. 

10,624 

4,008 

Keokuk, Iowa. 

14,101 

12,1x7 

Michigan City, Ind... 

10,776 

7,366 

Key West, Fla. 

18,080 

9,890 

Middletown, Conn... 

9,013 

6,826 

Kingston, N. Y. 

21,261 

18,344 

Middletown, N. Y.... 

ii ,977 

8,494 

Knoxville, Tenn. 

22,535 

9,693 

Milford, Mass. 

8,780 

9 - 3 I(r 

Kokomo, Ind. 

8,261 

4,042 

Millville, N. J. 

10,002 

204,468 

7,660 

La Crosse, Wis. 

25,090 

14,505 

Milwaukee, Wis. 

115,587 

Lafayatte, Ind. 

16,243 

14,860 

25,769 

Minneapolis, Minn... 

164,738 

46,887 

Lancaster, Pa. 

32,011 

Moberly, Mo. 

8,215 

6,070 

Lansing, Mich. 

13,102 

8 , 3 x 9 

Mobile, Ala. 

31,076 

29,132 

Lansinburg, N. Y.... 

10,550 

7,432 

Moline, Ill.-- 

12,000 

21,883 

7,800 

Laredo, Texas. 

IL 3 W 

9,855 

3 , 52 i 

Montgomery, Ala. 

16,713 

La Salle, Ill. 

7,847 

Mount Carmel, Pa... 

8,254 

2,378 

Lawrence, Kans. 

9,997 

8,510 

Mount Vernon, N. Y. 

10,677 

4,586 

Lawrence, Mass. 

44,654 

39 A 5 I 

Muncie, Ind. 

11.345 

5,219 

Leadville, Colo. 

11,212 

19,768 

14,820 

Muscatine, Iowa. 

11,454 

8,295 

Leavenworth, Kans... 

16,546 

Muskegon, Mich. 

22,702 

11,262 

Lebanon, Pa. 

14,664 

8,778 

Nanticoke, Pa. 

10,044 

3,884 

Lewiston, Me. 

21,701 

21,567 

19,083 

Nashua, N. H........ 

19,311 

13,397 

Lexington, Ky. 

16,656 

Nashville, Tenn. 

76,168 

43,350 

Lima, Ohio. 

15,987 

7,567 

Natchez, Miss. 

10,101 

7,058 

Lincoln Neb. 

55,154 

13,003 

Natick, Mass........ 

9,118 

8,479 

Lincoln, R. I. 

20,355 

13,765 

Nebraska City, Neb.. 

IX,494 

1,183 

Little Falls, N. Y. 

8,783 

6,-910 

New Albany, Ind. 

21,059 

16,423 

Little Rock, Ark. 

25,874 

I 3 T 38 

Newark, N. J. 

181,830 

136,508 

Lockport, N. Y. 

16,038 

13,522 

Newark, Ohio. 

14,270 

9,600 

Logansport, Ind. 

13,328 

11,198 

New Bedford, Mass.. 

40,733 

26,84$ 

Long island City, N. Y 

3°, 506 

17,129 

New Brighton, N. Y .. 

16,423 

12,679 

Los Angeles, Cal. 

50,395 

11,183 

123,758 

New Britain, Conn... 

19,007 

11,800 

Louisville Ky. 

161,129 

New Brunswick, N. J 

18,603 

17,166 

Lowell Mass. 

77,696 

59,475 

Newburg, N. Y. 

23,087 

18,049 

Lynchburg, Va.. 

19,709 

is.osolNewburyport, Mass.. 

13,947 

13,538 

Lynn, Mass. 

McKeesport, Pa . 

55,727 

38,274 Newcastle, Pa. 

11,600 

8,418 

20,741 

8 , 2 I 2 J 

New Haven, Conn ... 

81,298 

62,88a 


65 































































































Cities and Towns of over 8,000 Population — Continued. 


CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

New London, Conn... 

13.757 

io ,537 

Quincy, Mass. 

16,723 

10,570 

New Orleans, La. 

242,039 

216,090 

Racine, Wis. 

21,014 

16,031 

Newport, Ky. 

24,918 

20,433 

Raleigh, N. C. 

12,678 

9,265 

Newport, R. I. 

19.457 

15,693 

Reading, Pa. 

58,661 

43,278 

New Rochelle, NY... 

8,318 

5,276 

Richmond, Ind. 

16,608 

12,742 

Newton, Mass. 

24,379 

16,995 

Richmond, Va. 

81,388 

63,600 

New York, N. Y.i 

,515,301 

1,206,299 

Roanoke, Va. 

16,159 


Norfolk, Va. 

34,871 

21,966 

Rochester, N. Y___ 

133.896 

89,366 

Norristown, Pa. 

i 9 , 79 i 

13,063 

Rockford, Ill.. 

23,584 

I 3, I2 9 

North Adams, Mass.. 

16,074 

10,191 

Rock Island, Ill. 

13,634 

“,659 

Northampton, Mass.. 

14,990 

12,172 

13,956 

Rockland, Me. 

8,174 

7,599 

Norwalk, Conn. 

17,747 

Rome, N. Y. 

14,991 

12,194 

Norwich, Conn. 

16,156 

15,112 

Rutland, Vt. 

11,760 

12,149 

Oakland, Cal. 

48,682 

34,555 

Sacramento, Cal. 

26,386 

21,420 

Ogden, Utah. 

Ogdensburg, N. Y... 

14,889 

6,069 

Saginaw, Mich. 

Saint Joseph, Mo.... 

46,322 

29 , 54 i 

11,662 

10,341 

52,324 

32,431 

Oil City, Pa. 

10,932 

7 , 3 U 

Saint Louis, Mo. 

45 i, 77 ° 

350,518 

Omaha, Neb. 

140,452 

3 0 , 5 i 8 

Saint Paul, Minn. 

133, x 56 

4 i ,473 

Orange, N. J. 

18,844 

13,207 

Salem, Mass. 

30,801 

27,563 

Oshkosh, Wis. 

22,836 

15,748 

Salt Lake City, Utah. 

44,843 

20,768 

Oswego, N. Y. 

21,842 

21,116 

San Antonio, Texas.. 
San Diego, Cal. 

37,673 

20,550 

Ottawa City, Ill. 

9,985 

7,834 

16,159 

2,637 

Ottumwa, Iowa. 

14,001 

9,004 

Sandusky, Ohio. 

18,471 

15,838 

Owensborough, Ky... 

9,837 

6,231 

San Francisco, Cal... 

298,997 

233,959 

Paducah, Ky. 

13 >076 

8,036 

San Jose, Cal. 

Saratoga Spr’gs, N. Y 

18,060 

12,567 

Paris, Texas. 

8,254 

3,980 

“,975 

8,421 

Parkersburg, W. Va.. 

8,408 

6,582 

Savannah, Ga. 

43> l8 9 

30,709 

Passaic, N. J. 

13,028 

6,532 

Schenectady, N. Y... 

IQ.Q 02 

13,655 

Paterson, N. J. 

78,347 

51,031 

Scranton, Pa. 

75,215 

45,850 

Pawtucket, R. I. 

27,633 

19,030 

Seattle, Wash. 

42,837 

3,553 

Peabody, Mass. 

10,158 

9,028 

Sedalia, Mo. 

14,068 

9 , 56 i 

Peekskill, N. Y. 

9,676 

6,893 

Shamokin, Pa. 

14,403 

8,184 

Pensacola, Fla. 

n, 75 o 

6,845 

Sheboygan, Wis. 

16,359 

7 , 3 X 4 

Peoria, Ill. 

41,024 

29,259 

Shenandoah, Pa . 

15,944 

10,147 

Perth Amboy, N. J... 

9,512 

4,808 

Shreveport, La. 

“,979 

8,009 

Petersburg, Va. 

22,680 

,046,964 

21,656 

Sing Sing, N. Y. 

9,352 

6,578 

Philadelphia, Pa.i 

Phillipsburg, N. J. ... 

847,170 

Sioux City, Iowa. 

37 , 8 o 6 

7,366 

8,644 

7,181 

Sioux Falls, S. Dak.. 

10,177 

2,164 

Phoenixville, Pa. 

8,514 

6,682 

Somerville, Mass. 

40,152 

24,933 

Pine Bluff, Ark. 

9,952 

3,203 

South Bend, Ind. 

21,819 

13,280 

Piqua, Ohio. 

Pittsburg, Pa. 

9,090 

6,031 

156,389 

South Bethlehem, Pa. 

10,302 

4,925 

238,617 

South Omaha, Neb... 

8,062 

Pittsfield, Mass...... 

17,281 

13,364 

Spencer, Mass. 

Spokane Falls, Wash. 

8,747 

7,466 

Pittston, Pa. 

10,302 

7,472 

19,922 

35 ° 

Plainfield, N. T. 

11,267 

8,125 

Springfield, Ill. 

24,963 

19,743 

Plattsmouth, Neb.... 

8,392 

4,175 

Springfield, Mass.... 

44 A 79 

33 , 34 ° 

Plymouth, Pa. 

9,344 

6,065 

Springfield, Mo. 

21,850 

6,522 

Port Huron, Mich.... 

V 3,543 

8,883 

Springfield, Ohio. 

31,895 

20,730 

Port Jervis, N. Y. 

Portland, Me. 

9,327 

8,678 

Stamford, Conn. 

15,700 

11,297 

36,425 

33 , 8 io 

Steel ton. Pa. 

9,250 

2,447 

Portland, Ore. 

46,385 

17,577 

Steubenville, Ohio.... 

13,394 

12,093 

Portsmouth, N. H.... 

9,827 

9,690 

Stillwater, Minn. 

11,260 

9,055 

Portsmouth, Ohio.... 

12,394 

11,321 

Stockton, Cal. 

14,424 

10,282 

Portsmouth, Va. 

13,268 

13,285 

ii, 39 ° 

Streator, Ill. 

11,414 

5 D 57 

Pottstown, Pa. 

5,305 

Superior, Wis. 

“,983 

Pottsville, Pa. 

14,117 

13,253 

Syracuse, NY. 

88,143 

5 I , 79 2 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y.. 

22,206 

20,207 

Tacoma, Wash. 

36,006 

1,098 

Providence, R. 1 . 

132,146 

104,857 

Taunton, Mass. 

25,448 

21,211 

Pueblo, Colo.. 

24,558 

3.217 

Terre Haute, Ind. 

30,217 

26,042 

Quriicy, III. 

3 L 494 

27,268 Tiffin, Ohio.. 

10,801 

7»879 


66 


































































































Cities and Towns of over 8,000 Population — Concluded. 


CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES AND TOWNS. 

1890. 

-- ’ * 

1880. 

Titusville, Pa.. 

8,073 

9,046 

Westfield, Mass. 

9,805 

7,587 

Toledo, Ohio. 

8 i ,434 

50,137 

West Troy, N. Y. 

12,967 

8,820 

Topeka, Kans. 

31,007 

15,452 

Weymouth, Mass. 

10,866 

10,570 

Trenton, N. J. 

57,458 

29,910 

Wheeling, W. Va. 

35 ,oi 3 

3 °, 73 7 

Troy, N. Y. 

60,956 

56,747 

Wichita, Kans. 

23,853 

4 , 9 ir 

Union, N. J. 

10,643 

5,849 

Wilkesbarre, Pa. 

37 , 7 l8 

23,339 

Utica, N. Y. 

44,007 

33 , 9 I 4 

Williamsport, Pa. 

27,132 

18,934 

Vernon, Conn. 

8,808 

6,915 

Willimantic, Conn.... 

8,648 

6,608 

Vicksburg, Miss.. 

13,373 

11,814 

Wilmington, Del. 

61, 43 1 
20,056 

42,478 

Vincennes, Ind. 

Waco, Texas. 

8,853 7 ,680 

Wilmington, N. C.... 
Winona, Minn. 

17,350 

14,445 

7,295 

18,208 

10,208 

Waltham, Mass. 

18,707 

17,761 

11,712 

Winston, N. C. 

8,018 

2,854 

Warwick, R. I.. 

12,164 

177,624 

Woburn, Mass. 

13,499 

10,931 

Washington, D. C.... 

230,392 

Woonsocket, R. I.... 

20,830 

16,050 

Waterbury, Conn. 

38,646 

17,806 

Worcester, Mass. 

84,655 

58,291 

Watertown, N. Y. 

14,725 

10,697 

Yonkers, N. Y. 

32,033 

18,892 

Watertown, Wis. 

8,755 

7,883 

York, Pa. 

20,793 

13,940 

Wausau, Wis. 

9,253 

4,277 

Youngstown, Ohio... 

33,220 

15,435 

West Bay City, Mich. 
West Chester, Pa. 

12,981 

8,028 

6,397 

7,046 

Zanesville, Ohio. 

21,009 

18,113 


The Wonderful Growth of Chicago, 

The population of Chicago in 1830, was 70; 1840, 4,853; 1845, 
12,088; 1850, 29,963; 1855, 60,227; i860, 112,172; 1865, 178,900; 
1S70, 298,977; 1872, 364,377; 18S0, 503,185; 1884, (estimated) 675,- 
000; 18S5, (estimated), 727,000; 1886, (estimated) 750,000; 1887, 
(estimated) 760,000; 1889, (estimated) 1,000,000; 1890, 1,099,133. 


THE NAMES OF THE STATES. 

Alabama —Indian; meaning “Here we rest.” Arkansas — 
“Kansas,” the Indian name for “smoky water,” with the French 
prefix “arc,” bow or bend in the principal river. Califor?iia — 
Caliente Fornalla , Spanish for “hot furnace,” in allusion to the 
climate. Colorado — Spanish; meaning “ colored,” from the red 
color of the Colorado river. Connecticut —Indian; meaning 
“ long river.” Delaware —Named in honor of Lord Delaware. 
Florida —Named by Ponce de Leon, who discovered it in 1512, 
on Easter Day, the Spanish Pascua de Flores , or “Feast of 
Flowers.” Georgia —In honor of George II. of England. Illi¬ 
nois —From the Indian “illini,” men, and the French suffix 
“ois,” together signifying “tribe of men.” Indiana —Indian 
land. Iowa —Indian; meaning “beautiful land.” Kansas —- 
Indian; meaning “smoky water.” Kentucky —Indian ; for “ at 
the head of the river; ” or “ the dark and bloody ground.” Louisi¬ 
ana —In honor of Louis XIV. of France. Maine —From the 
province of Maine, in France. Maryland —In honor of Henri¬ 
etta Maria, queen of Charles I. of England. Massachusetts — 

The plaee of the great hills (the blue hills southwest of Boston), 

67 










































NAMES OF THE STATES. 


Michigan —The Indian name for a fish weir. The lake was so 
called from the fancied resemblance of the lake to a fish trap. 
Minnesota —Indian; meaning “sky-tinted water.” Mississippi 
—Indian; meaning “great father of waters.” Missouri —Indian; 
meaning “muddy.” Nebraska —Indian; meaning “water val¬ 
ley.” Nevada —Spanish; meaning “snow-covered,” alluding to 
the mountains. New Hampshire —From Hampshire county, 
England. New Jersey —In honor of Sir George Carteret, one 
of the original grantees, who had previously been governor of 
Jersey Island. New Fork —In honor of the Duke of York. 
North and South Carolina —Originally called Carolina, in 
honor of Charles IX. of France. Ohio —Indian; meaning 
“beautiful river.” Oregon —From the Spanish “oregano,” wild 
marjoram, which grows abundantly on the coast. Pennsylvania 
—Latin: meaning Penn’s woody land. Rhode Island —From a 
fancied resemblance to the island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean. 
Tennessee —Indian, meaning “river with the great bend.” 
Texas — Origin of this name is unknown. Vermont —French; 
meaning green mountain. Virginia —In honor of Elizabe.h, 
the “Virgin Queen.” Wisconsin —Indian; meaning “ gathering 
of the waters,” or “ wild rushing channel.” 

MOTTOES OF THE STATES. 

Arkansas — Regnant populi: The peoples rule. Calif or- 
nia — Eureka: I have found it. Colorado — Nil sine numine: 
Nothing without the Divinity. Connecticut — Hfui transtulit 
sustinet: He who has transferred, sustains. Delaware —Liberty 
and Independence. Florida —In God is our trust. Georgia — 
Wisdom, Justice, Moderation. Illinois —State Sovereignty and 
National Union. Iowa —Our liberties we prize, and our rights 
we will maintain. Kansas — Ad astra per aspera: To the stars 
through rugged ways. Kentucky —United we stand, divided we 
fall. Louisiana —Union and Confidence. Maine — Dirigo: I 
direct. Maryland — Crescite et multiplicamini: Increase and 
multiply. Massachusetts — Ense petit placidam sub libertate 
quietem: By her sword she seeks under liberty a calm repose. 
Michigan—Si queeris peninsulam amcenam circumspice: If 
thou seekest a beautiful peninsula, look around. Minnesota — 
KEtoile d:i Nord: The Star of the North. Missouri — Solus 
fopuli suprema lex esto: Let the welfare of the people be the 
supreme law. Nebraska —Popular Sovereignty. Nevada — 
Volens et potens: Willing and able. New Je-rsey —Liberty and 
Independence. New Fork — Excelsior: Higher. Ohio — Im- 
perium in imperio: An empire within an empire. Oregon — 
Alis volat propriis: She flies with her own wings. Pennsylva¬ 
nia —Virtue, Liberty, Independence. Rhode Island —Hope. 

68 



GEOGRAPHICAL NICKNAMES. 


South Carolina—Animis opibusquc parati: Ready with our 
lives and property. Tennessee —Agriculture, Commerce. Ver¬ 
mont —Freedom and Unity. Virginia—Sic semper tyrannis: 
So be it ever to tyrants. West Virginia—Montani sc?nper 
liberi: The mountaineers are always free. Wisconsin —For¬ 
ward. United States—E pluribus unum: From many, one. 
Annuit cccptis: God has favored the undertaking; Novus ordo 
secloru.n: A new order of ages. The first named on one side of 
the great seal, the other two on the reverse. 

GEOGRAPHICAL NICKNAMES. 

STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

Alabama, Cotton State; Arkansas, Toothpick and Bear State; 
California, Eureka and Golden State; Colorado, Centennial State; 
Connecticut, Land of Steady Habits, Freestone State and Nut¬ 
meg State; Dakota, Sioux State; Delaware, Uncle Sam’s Pocket 
Handkerchief and Blue Hen State; Florida, Everglade and 
Flowery State; Georgia, Empire State of the South; Idaho, Gem 
of the Mountains; Illinois, Prairie and Sucker State; Indiana, 
Hoosier State; Iowa, Hawkeye State; Kansas, Jayhawker State; 
Kentucky, Corn-cracker State; Louisiana, Creole State; Maine, 
Timber and Pine Tree State; Maryland, Monumental State; 
Massachusetts, Old Bay State; Michigan, Wolverine and Penin¬ 
sular State; Minnesota, Gopher and North Star State; Mississippi, 
Eagle State; Missouri, Puke State; Nebraska, Antelope State; 
Nevada, Sage State; New Hampshire, Old Granite State; New 
Jersey, Blue State and New Spain; New Mexico, Vermin State; 
New York, Empire State; North Carolina, Rip Van Winkle, 
Old North and Turpentine State; Ohio, Buckeye State; Oregon, 
Pacific State; Pennsylvania, Keystone, Iron and Oil State; 
Rhode Islanu, Plantation State and Little Rhody; South Caro¬ 
lina, Palmetto State; Tennessee, Lion’s Den State; Texas, Lone 
Star‘State; Utah, Mormon State; Vermont, Green Mountain 
State; Virginia, Old Dominion; Wisconsin, Badger and Copper 
State. 

NATIVES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

Alabama, lizards; Arkansas, toothpicks; California, gold-hun¬ 
ters; Colorado, rovers; Connecticut, wooden nutmegs; Dakota, 
squatters; Delaware, muskrats; Florida, fly-up-the-creeks; 
Georgia, buzzards; Idaho, fortune seekers; Illinois, suckers; 
Indiana, hoosiers; Iowa, hawkeyes; Kansas, jayhawkers; Ken¬ 
tucky, corn-crackers; Louisiana, creoles; Maine, foxes; Mary¬ 
land, clam-humpers; Massachusetts, Yankees; Michigan, wol¬ 
verines; Minnesota, gophers; Mississippi, tadpoles; Missouri, 
pukes; Nebraska, bugeaters; Nevada, sage-hens; New Hampshire, 
granite boys; New jersey, blues, or clam-catchers; New Mexico, 

69 



GEOGRAPHICAL NICKNAMES. 


Spanish Indians; New York, Knickerbockers; North Carolina, 
tarheels; Ohio, buckeyes; Oregon, hard cases; Pennsylvania, 
pennamites, or leather-heads; Rhode Island, gunflints; South 
Carolina, weazles; Tennessee, whelps; Texas, beef-heads; Utah, 
polygamists; Vermont, green-mountain boys; Virginia, beagles; 
Wisconsin, badgers. 

NICKNAMES OF CITIES. 

Atlanta, Gate City of the South; Baltimore, Monumental 
City; Bangor, Lumber City; Boston, Modern Athens, Literary 
Emporium, City of Notions, and Hub of the Universe; Brook¬ 
lyn, City of Churches; Buffalo, Queen of the Lakes; Burling¬ 
ton (Iowa), Orchard City; Charleston, Palmetto City; Chicago, 
Prairie, or Garden City; Cincinnati, Queen of the West and 
Porkopolis; Cleveland, Forest City; Denver, City of the Plains; 
Detroit, City of the Straits; Hartford, Insurance City; Indian¬ 
apolis, Railroad City; Keokuk, Gate City; Lafayette, Star City; 
Leavenworth, Cottonwood City; Louisville, Falls City; Lowell, 
Spindle City; McGregor, Pocket City; Madison, Lake City; 
Milwaukee, Cream City; Nashville, Rock City; New Haven, 
Elm City; New Orleans, Crescent City; New York, Empire 
City, Commercial Emporium, Gotham, and Metropolis of 
America; Philadelphia, City of Brotherly Love, City of Penn, 
Quaker City, and Centennial City; Pittsburgh, Iron City and 
Smoky City; Portland (Me.), Hill City; Providence, Roger 
Williams’s City, and Perry Davis’s Pain Killer; Raleigh, Oak 
City; Richmond (Va.), Cockade City; Richmond (Ind.), 
Quaker City of the West; Rochester, Aqueduct City; Salt 
Lake City, Mormon City; San Francisco, Golden Gate; Sa¬ 
vannah, Forest City of the South; Sheboyan, Evergreen City; 
St. Louis, Mound City; St. Paul, North Star City; Vicksburg, 
Key City; Washington, City of Magnificent Distances, and 
Federal City. 


The English Sparrow. 

The first English sparrow was brought to the United States 
in 1850, but it was not until 1870 that the species can be said to 
have firmly established itself. Since then it has taken posses¬ 
sion of the country. Its fecundity is amazing. In the latitude 
of New York and southward it hatches, as a rule, five or six 
broods in a season, with from four to six young in a brood. As¬ 
suming the average annual product of a pair to be twenty-tour 
young, of which half are females and half males, and assuming 
further, for the sake of computation, that all live, together with 
their offspring, it will be seen that in ten years the progeny of a 
single pair would be 275,716,983,698. 

70 



U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF. 


T HAT enthusiastic little rebel, Rhode Island, was the first 
of the colonies to declare itself “ free from all dependence 
on the crown of Great Britain.” This she did on May 
4, 1776. The Assembly of Virginia in the same month in¬ 
structed her delegates to the Continental Congress to present to 
that body a proposition “ affirming the independence of the colo¬ 
nies from Great Britain.” In compliance with these instructions 
Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, on June 7, 1776, introduced his 
famous resolutions: “That these united colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all political 
connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and 
ought to be, totally dissolved. That it is expedient forthwith to 
take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances. 
That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the 
respective colonies for their consideration and approbation.” 
John Adams seconded these resolutions, and an animated discus¬ 
sion ensued. On June 8, a committee consisting of Thomas Jef¬ 
ferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and 
Robert R. Livingston, was appointed to draw up a declaration 
of independence embodying the sense of Lee’s resolutions. On 
July 2, Lee’s resolutions were passed by the vote of twelve of the 
thirteen colonies, the New York delegates refraining from voting 
for want of instructions from their province. On July 3, the 
formal declaration, almost precisely as written by Thomas Jef¬ 
ferson, was presented by the committee above named, and was 
debated with great spirit, John Adams being the chief speaker 
on the part of the committee. The discussion was resumed on 
the morning of the 4th, and at 2 o’clock in the afternoon, after 
one or two slight modifications, it was adopted. The announce¬ 
ment was hailed with the liveliest enthusiasm. “Ring! ring!” 
shouted the lad stationed below to give the signal to the old bell¬ 
man in the State House tower; and he did ring until the whole 
city shouted for joy. The King’s arms were wrenched from the 
Court House and burned in the streets; bonfires were lighted, 
the city illuminated, and the exultation was prolonged far into 
the night. In New York City the populace hurled the leaden 
statute of George III. from its pedestal and molded it into bul¬ 
lets, and in all the great cities similar demonstrations of enthu¬ 
siasm were exhibited. 

The Declaration of Independence was signed August 2, 
1776, when President John Hancock said, “ There must be no 
pulling different ways, we must all hang together,” to which 
Franklin replied, “Yes, we must all hang together, or we shall 
all hang separately.” 


71 



V. S. POLITICAL HIS TOR T IN BRIEF. 


State constitutions were adopted in the same year as follows: 
By New Jersey (July 2), Virginia (July 5), Pennsylvania (July 
15), Maryland' (Aug. 14), Delaware (Sept. 20), North Carolina 
(Dec. 18). 

1:778—Independence of United States acknowledged by 
France by a treaty of alliance and commerce. 

1779—Naval victory of John Paul Jones. 

1781— A French fleet in aid of the United States drives the 
British from Chesapeake Bay. Surrender of Cornwallis. 

1782— Independence recognized by Holland. 

1:783—Independence acknowledged by Sweden, Denmark, 
Spain and Russia, successively. Definite treaty of peace with 
Great Britain, Sept. 3. 

1789—Formation and adoption of the Constitution. 

American politics begins properly with the close of the Revolu 
tionary war, out of which travail this nation was born. When 
the British departed they left behind them thirteen separate and 
independent States joined together in a feeble confederation and 
governed as a whole, so far as they would consent to be governed 
at all, by the inadequate Continental Congress. The finances 
were in a deplorable condition; the States were jealous of each 
other, and of the Congress. As everything was badly defined 
and unsettled there were constant encroachments and abuses, 
and it seemed that after achieving freedom America was about 
to cast it away. During the war there had been two parties, the 
Tories, who were English in sympathy, and the Whigs, who 
were American to the core. The'se gave place to two new di¬ 
visions, one of which favored a closer and lasting union in which 
the States should bind themselves together into a compact gov¬ 
ernment—called the Federalists; and one which, while gener¬ 
ally admitting the need for a closer and more binding union, still 
sought to preserve the sovereignty and independence of the 
States—these were known as the Anti-Federalists. Our Consti¬ 
tution and our form of government are the result of the two op¬ 
posing forces, and its great flexibility—its perfection—is to be 
ascribed to the wisdom with which the fathers sought out and 
chose what was best in the scheme of either. 

It is impossible here to do more than outline the growth of 
parties, but no man can be an intelligent voter who does not 
study the foundation of the republic. Every citizen should pur¬ 
sue this subject further in the pages of the Federalist, which 
argued one side of the issue, and in the writings of Thomas Jef¬ 
ferson, who upheld the other. It will show how high ran feeling 
at the time, when it is pointed out that, although the Constitu¬ 
tion was adopted in 1787, it was ratified by but eleven States in 
1788. Still this was enough to set the new nation up in business. 

72 


U. S . POLITICAL HI STOP r IN BRIEF 


GEORGE WASHINGTON (1789-1797) was the unanimous 
choice of the electoral college, and the hero of the revolution be¬ 
came the first President of the United States in 1789. It is not 
to be imagined that even at that time the people were all of one 
mind about the Constitution. There is no document—not even 
the Bible—which is not subject to different interpretations, and 
the great charter of our American liberties was no exception to 
the rule. Parties were formed known as strict constructionists 
and loose constructionists, the former Federalists, the latter Anti- 
Federalists, the first believing in a strongly centralized govern¬ 
ment, the second jealously observant of the rights of the States. 
It will be found that a close analysis of the distinction made 
there has been and is the dividing line of American parties ever 
since. 

Of course new issues complicated the old ones. The Anti-Fed¬ 
eralists changed their name to the Democratic-Republican 
party, and warmly urged the alliance with France. In the rev¬ 
olution which had just ended, the French alone had first come to 
our aid, and on land and sea had waged war upon our common 
enemy. Hence there was a lively sense of gratitude to that great 
nation throughout the country, made none the less by the estab¬ 
lishment of the republic, and hardly destroyed by the atrocities 
of the Reign of Terror. The Federalists, on the other hand, in¬ 
clined toward England as the national friend, through the ties 
of kinship and common language. In spite of these differences 
of opinion, which were daily growing more bitter, there was 
practically no partisanship during Washington’s administration. 
He called Federalists and Anti-Federalists into his cabinet, which 
was composed of men of such opposite views as Alexander 
Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, and his farewell address, which 
every school boy has read, is full of grave warning against the evils 
and dangers of party spirit. 

But with Washington in retirement, the contest began. The 
Federalists put JOHN ADAMS (1797-1801) in the field, and 
elected him in spite of the English treaty which John Jay had 
made and which Adams had supported. Thomas Jefferson be¬ 
came vice-president, because at that time the vice-presidency 
went to the man receiving the next largest vote for president, a 
system which was in force until 1804. 

There were many reasons why the Federalist triumph could 
not be a permanent one. England was intensely unpopular, and 
the administration was accused of favoring that kingdom unduly. 
The alien and sedition laws caused an access of the public dis¬ 
pleasure, and the party split into two sections, one following Ad¬ 
ams, the other Hamilton. Nominations for the election were 
made by members of Congress; Adams and Pinkney were chosen 

73 


U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF. 

as the Federal standard-bearers, Jefferson and Aaron Burr as the 
Republican. Jefferson and Burr were elected, but as both had 
received the same number of votes, the election was thrown into 
the House, which chose THOMAS JEFFERSON (1801-1809) 
the third president of the United States. 

The history of his administration was a quiet one. He refused 
to make the civil service the spoil of victory, and gave proof of 
the flexibility of his ideas of government by the purchase of 
Louisiana Territory from France in 1803, which was a measure 
tending strongly toward Federalism — giving a hostage, 
as it were, to the central government on the part of the 
States. Jefferson also agreed to the building of the great 
post road to the Ohio, which was by no means a Republican 
scheme. 

JAMES MADISON (1809-1S17) was elected fourth presi¬ 
dent. He, like Jefferson, was a Republican, although, as has been 
pointed out, that party is more nearly akin to what is to-day 
called Democracy. C. C. Pinkney, the Federalist candidate who 
opposed him, and who had run twice against Jefferson, received 
47 electoral votes, while Madison was given 122. The Feder¬ 
alists lost every part of the country save New England, and one 
result of this election was to give that sectional tone to our poli¬ 
tics which has to a greater or less extent endured to the present 
time. 

The country was drifting into a war with England at the time, 
and the public spirit was aroused by the continual outrages per¬ 
petrated upon our sailors on the high seas by British ships. The 
Republicans were recognized as the fighting party, and under 
the leadership of Calhoun, Clay and Crawford, the War of 1812 
was begun. The Federalists protested, and in Massachusetts 
and Connecticut the governors refused to allow the militia to go 
out of the State, save to repel invasion. That argument lasted but 
a short time, however, for the country was invaded and the city of 
Washington captured and burned. The treaty of peace was 
signed in the winter of 1814, but before the news reached this 
country Andrew Jackson had gained the magnificent victory of 
New Orleans, on January 8, 1S15. 

With the close of Madison’s administration a new era in our 
politics began. The questions of Federalism and of the French 
or English friendship were dead, and new issues were coming up. 
These were the tariff, the management of finances and the devel¬ 
opment of industry. What became known as the Era of Good 
Feeling followed, which lasted from the election of JAMES 
MONROE (1817-1825) up to 1828. Upon Monroe’s second 
election in 1821, there was no opposition to him, and he would 
have had the unanimous vote of the electoral college had not one 

74 


U. S. POLITICAL HIS TOR T IN BRIEF. 


of the electors declared that that honor should be confined 
sacredly to Washington. 

It was the Slavery Question which put an end to the era of 
good feeling, and which burned hotly, and more hotly, un¬ 
til it wrapped the whole land in the flames of civil war. It 
began with the application of Missouri for admission into the 
Union in 1820. Prior to that time Mason and Dixon’s Line, 
which is the boundary of Maryland and Pennsylvania, and the 
Ohio River, formed the division between slave States and free. 
Missouri lies beyond the Mississippi River, and out of the 
limits fixed, and the question was a threatening one until Henry 
Clay brought in his famous Missouri Compromise, which ad¬ 
mitted Missouri as a slave State, and forbade slavery north of 
36° 30’ north latitude. To balance Missouri in the Senate, 
Maine was admitted at the same time as a free State. 

A protective tariff had been devised by John C. Calhoun in 
1816, and President Monroe strengthened and increased the pro¬ 
tection accorded. In 1819 he purchased Florida from Spain; 
and in 1823, in consequence of the war made by Spain against 
her revolted colonies in the three Americas, he voiced that 
splendid declaration which will always be associated with his 
name— the Monroe Doctrine. This doctrine briefly is that the 
United States will not interfere in any European war, nor will 
it permit European interference or European control in 
America North or South. 

No better proof could be given of the condition of parties 
than the election which ended Monroe’s tenure of office. The 
electoral college chose a vice-president, John C. Calhoun, but 
its vote for the presidency was so scattered between Jackson, 
Adams, Crawford and Clay that the choice was thrown into the 
House. Here, by an alliance of the friends of Clay and Adams, 
Jackson was defeated and JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1825— 
1829) became the sixth president. Clay was rewarded with the 
portfolio of State, and out of the alliance the “ Whig ” Party 
was formed. Their principles were in part those of the old Fed¬ 
eralists. They were for a high tariff with strong protection, and 
they early declared for a policy of internal improvements to be 
paid for by the nation at large. Jackson’s followers took the 
place of the old anti-Federalists; they were strict construction¬ 
ists, opposed to the tariff, and in their principles and speeches 
was to be found the nucleus of the States’ rights doctrine. They 
called themselves “ Democrats. ’’ The four years of Adams’ 
presidency was passed in marshaling and organizing the two 
opposing forces. 

ANDREW JACKSON (1829-1837), the seventh president, 
carried everything before him. The electoral vote was 1781083$ 

75 


u. S. POLITICAL Ills TORT IN BRIEF. 


the popular, 647,231 for Jackson, 509,097 for Adams. As soon 
as he had taken up the reigns of power, Jackson removed some 
five hundred office-holders from their places, on Marcy’s famous 
theory that “to the victors belong the spoils.” Upon this prin¬ 
ciple the tenure of political office still practically, if not theoret¬ 
ically, depends. 

The Tariff was exceedingly unpopular at the South, which 
was then as now, an agricultural rather than a manufacturing 
region. Several States had protested, and in 1830 Senator 
Hayne laid down the doctrine of Nullification—that any State 
could declare null and void any act of Congress. Webster 
answered this declaration in the debate which has since been 
famous. The original discussion was not on the tariff regula¬ 
tions, but on the sale of public lands. The struggle was a hot 
one. Jackson took occasion to put himself on record at once 
with his celebrated toast, “Our Federal Union, it must be pre¬ 
served.” The words were first uttered at a dinner in honor of 
his birthday. Calhoun took the opposite view, and in 1831 the 
president’s cabinet was broken up by the issue. A new tariff 
bill was passed, but the South was still dissatisfied, and in 1832 
South Carolina passed the Nullification ordinance. Jackson at 
once sent a naval force into Charleston harbor, and Congress 
passed a bill enforcing the tariff; but Henry Clay again came 
forward with a compromise which was accepted on both sides. 

The United States Bank was the next bone of contention. 
It had been chartered in 1816 for twenty years. After a struggle 
with Congress, and with his secretary of the Treasury, Duane, 
who would not remove the national deposits from the bank, Jack- 
son dismissed Duane and appointed Taney secretary of the Treas¬ 
ury. The deposits ceased. The Senate at once passed a vote of 
censure on the president, but the House, after investigating the 
bank, sustained Jackson at every point and refused a new char¬ 
ter. The fight with the Senate, in which there was an adverse 
majority, continued until the end of Jackson’s term. During his 
administration was the first weak beginning of the Abolition 
party. The Anti-Slavery Society was formed in 1S33. It was the 
target for abuse and violence, which culminated in the assassina¬ 
tion of Lovejoy. Congress solemnly declared that it would listen 
to no petitions upon the question of slavery, and Jackson askea 
that the sending of abolition documents through the mails should 
be prohibited. This the Senate refused. 

The Democratic candidate, MARTIN VAN BUREN (1837- 
1841), the eighth president, was elected over W. H. Harrison and 
several other opposition nominees, including Daniel Webster. He 
followed out Jackson’s policy to the letter, one part of which, the 
celebrated “specie circular,” brought on the Great Panic of 1837. 

76 


U. S . POLITICAL HI ST OR r IN BRIEF. 


This was an order to United States agents to receive only gold 
and silver for public lands. Banks collapsed, money became 
scarce, and failures were most frightfully numerous. In 1840 
Van Buren was renominated, but the Whigs, by an attack on the 
Democratic financial policy, carried the country and elected 
Wi H. HARRISON (1841) the ninth president. It was in this 
campaign that the abolitionists produced their first national plat¬ 
form, which favored the abolition of slavery in the District of 
Columbia and the Territories. In the same year the Democracy 
at Baltimore resolved that Congress had no power to interfere 
with or control the domestic institutions of the several States, 
which were the sole and proper judges of everything pertaining 
to their own affairs not prohibited by the Constitution, and that 
the efforts “ by Abolitionists or others ” to interfere with ques¬ 
tions of slavery were calculated “ to lead to the most alarming 
and dangerous consequences,” “ to diminish the happiness of the 
people and endanger the stability and permanence of the Union, 
and ought not to be countenanced by any friend of our political 
institutions.” The convention also adopted a resolution to the 
effect that every attempt to abridge the rights or privileges of for¬ 
eign-born citizens should be resisted. This was aimed at the 
Know-nothing tendency then just appearing, which had, how¬ 
ever, no affiliation with the Abolition movement, already vig¬ 
orous. 

Harrison did not live out the year, and he was succeeded by 
the vice-president, JOHN TYLER (1841-1845), the tenth pres¬ 
ident. Tyler rapidly got into trouble with his cabinet, which, 
save Webster, deserted him on issues connected with his attempt 
to carry out Harrison’s financial policy. The slavery question 
was pressing forward more and more urgently for solution all 
this time. An Ohio Congressman, Giddings, brought the issue 
into the House of Representatives, and was censured by that body 
for so doing. He resigned and was at once unanimously re¬ 
elected. A new tariff bill was brought in, and the proposition 
then made for a division of the surplus among the States. 

Finance, protection, internal improvements, and indeed every 
minor issue, had to give way to the great puzzle of slavery. It 
was coming on for adjustment, and no hand could stay it. In the 
campaign of 1844 it produced the dispute over the re-annexation 
of Texas. The Democratic platform declared the Great Ameri¬ 
can Measures —the taking in of Texas and Oregon. As Texas 
would be a slave territory, the idea was antagonized in the 
North, but after a close and perplexed election JAMES K. 
POLK (184^-1849), the eleventh president, was elected. Henry 
Clay, the Whig candidate, was beaten by the vote of 62,300 
which was given to Jas. G. Birney by the Liberty party. 

77 


U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF. 


The new administration at once took up the Texas matter, and 
the War with Mexico was the necessary consequence. The his¬ 
tory of that struggle will be found in its appropriate place in this 
book. It is here necessary merely to point out the results. By 
the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, the United States acquired all 
that country which we now call the great West, including the 
treasures of California and the Sierras. The northwestern frontier 
was fixed at the 49th degree of north latitude, and the adminis¬ 
tration closed with the largest accession of land that had yet been 
made to the Republic. 

The Wilmot Proviso attempted to block slavery in the new 
territories, and Oregon was organized as free soil. A low tariff 
bill was passed, and the Whigs got through a river and harbor 
bill which the president promptly vetoed. This brought the 
country up to the campaign of 1848, in which the Whigs recov¬ 
ered the government. The platform of the Democracy made at 
Baltimore approved the Mexican war, congratulated the republic 
of France on achieving its liberty, and the world on the downfall 
of thrones and dominations everywhere. The same year, at 
Philadelphia, the Whigs resolved merely that Zachary Taylor 
was the best man for president. At Buffalo, in the same year, 
the Abolitionists determined that they would forget all past politi¬ 
cal differences in a common resolve to maintain the rights of free 
labor against the aggression of the slave power, and to secure a 
free soil to a free people. This convention also demanded cheap 
postage; river and harbor improvements when required for the 
general convenience; indorsed the idea of the homestead law; 
and inscribed on 'ts banner “free soil, free speech, free labor and 
free men.” 

The magic of military success and the excellent organization 
of the Whigs made ZACHARY TAYLOR (1849-1850) twelfth 
president. He lived but a short time and was succeeded by the 
vice-president, MIULARD FILLMORE (1850-1853), thirteenth 
president. 

With 1850 what might be called the war period of American 
politics began. In this year was introduced the Clay compro¬ 
mise, which admitted California as a free State, but on the other 
hand altered the Fugitive Slave Laws, which inflamed the North 
to the point of war. Several of the States met the action of 
Congress by personal liberty laws, which really amounted to nul¬ 
lification. The old parties broke up; there were Democrats, and 
Free Soil Democrats, and Whigs. Winfield Scott, the Whig can¬ 
didate, carried only four States in the Union, and FRANKLIN 
PIERCE (1853-1857), the fourteenth president, was elected. 

There was soon actual fighting, on the dividing line between 

North ahd South, The Kansas-Nebraska Bill repealed the Mi§« 

78 


U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 


60uri compromise and made all new territory open to slavery. 
The Whig party split in two on this issue, one of the sections be¬ 
coming the Republican party of the day, the other going over 
finally to the Democrats, a fact which will account for much of 
the confusion on purely financial and tariff issues to be found in 
both those parties to-day. When you find a Republican who is a 
free trader, or a Democrat who is a protectionist, the anomaly is 
to be traced directly to the fissure, and the new sides taken in the 
1850’s on the free soil question. 

Passions were at fever heat. In Kansas the “Jayhawkers” and 
the “Border Ruffians” were already at each other’s throats. It 
was plain that the matter in dispute could only be settled by an 
appeal to the arbitrament of arms. 

In 1856 the Republicans nominated their first candidate, Gen. 
John C. Fremont, “the Pathfinder.” Their platform recites that 
the convention was called without regard to previous political 
differences, to enable all opposed to the repeal of the Missouri 
compromise to come together. The platform opposed the exten¬ 
sion of slavery into the territories; declared that Congress 
should prohibit in the territories “the twin relics of barbarism, 
polygamy and slavery;” and opposed all prescriptive legislation, 
thus antagonizing the Democracy on the slavery issue and the 
Know-nothings on nativism. The Whigs met at Baltimore. 
Their platform is devoted exclusively to a denunciation of “geo¬ 
graphical parties,” and a recommendation of Millard Fillmore, 
the American or “Know-nothing” candidate for President. The 
Democrats added little to former platforms, save that they de¬ 
clared against the Know-nothings on their war on foreigners, 
and agreed with them in their declaration against intervention 
with slavery. They nominated and elected JAMES BU¬ 
CHANAN (1857-1861), fifteenth president. Fremont, however, 
polled a popular vote of 1,341,264 against Buchanan’s 1,838,169, 
while Fillmore received 874,534. 

The Dred Scott Case now came on to exacerbate still more 
bitterly public feeling. Chief Justice Taney declared that a 
negro was a chattel, that the compromise of 1820 was unconsti¬ 
tutional, and that a slave-owner might settle with his property 
where he pleased, in any territory. Following this came John 
Brown’s raid into Virginia—his attempt to excite a slave insur¬ 
rection, and his death upon the gallows. There was nothing for 
it but war, and into war the country rapidly drifted. 

The campaign of i860 was the most confused in the whole 
history of American politics. There was talk of secession in 
the air. There was notoriously war preparation in the South. 
The North was divided. Every man felt that parties would have 
to be re-arranged ^nd new political frontiers defined. The 


U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF. 


"Constitutional Union” party met at Baltimore. All it demanded 
was the “Constitution of the country, the union of the States, and 
the enforcement of the laws.” The Republicans met at Chi¬ 
cago. The platform is the most significant in the political his¬ 
tory of the republic, and contains the essence of all its history 
since that date. It denounced the threats of disunion made by 
Democrats in Congress as an “avowal of contemplated treason” 
which it was the duty of the people to “rebuke and forever 
silence.” It asserted that the normal condition of all the terri¬ 
tory of the United States is that of freedom; that the reopening 
of the slave trade was a crime against humanity; that duties 
should be adjusted so as to encourage the development of the 
industrial interests of the whole country; that Congress should 
pass a complete and satisfactory homestead law; that the rights 
of citizenship enjoyed by foreigners should not be abridged or 
impaired; that the rights of all citizens, native or naturalized, 
should be protected abroad and at home. The Douglas Demo¬ 
cratic platform, adopted at Charleston, favored the acquisition 
of Cuba; declared that State legislatures which interfered with 
the enforcement of the fugitive slave law were revolutionary and 
subversive of the Constitution; and reaffirmed the Cincinnati 
platform of 1856 on tariff. The Breckinridge platform, adopted 
at Charleston and Baltimore, reaffirmed the Democratic platform 
adopted at Cincinnati, with certain “explanatory resolutions,” 
which in substance were that slave-owners had a right “to settle 
with their property” in the territories without being interfered 
with by territorial or congressional legislation. 

On these issues four candidates were put in the field. The 
Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln; the Democrats, J. C. 
Breckinridge; the Constitutional Union party, John Bell; the 
Independent Democrats, Stephen A. Douglas. ABRAHAM 
LINCOLN (1861-1865) was chosen sixteenth president, by a 
popular vote of 1,866,352; Douglas received 1,375,157; Breckin¬ 
ridge, 845,763; Bell, 589,581. 

On December 20, i860, South Carolina declared that the 
Union was dissolved, and a Secession resolution was passed. 
Following, six other slave States immediately seceded. Every 
effort was made to stem the tide of disunion, but nothing could 
be done save with arms in the field. A peace congress met and 
proved futile. The Crittenden compromise was scoffed out of 
court. The Confederate States of America was formed at 
Montgomery, Alabama, in February, 1861, with Jefferson Davis 
as president, and slavery and low tariffs as its corner stone. 
The first ball was fired April 14, 1861, and the great issue of the 
century joined. 

i* or the time politics were relegated to the background. 

80 


U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 


There were only Unionists and Secessionists. The financing of 
the great struggle led to a high tariff, the issue of treasury notes, 
and finally the establishment of the national banking system. 
The internal revenue system was developed, an income tax was 
imposed, greenbacks were issued, and the resources of the 
country marshaled to meet the expenses of a war that cost 
$1,000,000 a day. 

On Jan. i, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation 
Proclamation, which freed the Southern slaves, and marks an 
epoch in the history of the world. Two years later, under the 
apple tree at Appomattox, Lee surrendered to Grant, and the 
war ended with the complete triumph of the Northern arms. 
There had in the meantime been another presidential election, 
in which Lincoln defeated George B. McClellan and John C. 
Fremont. Shortly after Lee’s surrender Lincoln was assassi¬ 
nated by J. Wilkes Booth, an actor, and ANDREW JOHNSON 
(1865-1869), the seventeenth president, took up the chief magis¬ 
tracy. 

The problem of the day was the Reconstruction of the old 
slave States, upon which the new president and his party at 
once quarreled. The point at issue was the proper safe-guarding 
of the newly-freed negro. Congress passed the Civil Rights 
bill, the Freedman’s Bureau bill, and submitted the XIVth 
Amendment to the Constitution. The president was finally 
impeached by Congress, but his trial before the Senate resulted 
in an acquittal by one vote. 

ULYSSES S. GRANT (1869-1877), the eighteenth president, 
was elected over Horatio Seymour, on a platform adopted by the 
Republicans at Chicago, which denounced repudiation; favored 
suffrage on equal terms to all men; encouraged immigration and 
declared itself in sympathy with all oppressed people who are 
struggling for their rights. The Democratic platform of 1868 
acknowledged that the questions of slavery and secession had 
been forever settled by the war or by conctitutional conventions; 
and favored amnesty for all political offenses. It made a very 
distinct pronouncement on tariff in the following words: “A 
tariff for revenue upon foreign imports, and such equal taxation 
under the internal revenue laws as will afford incidental pro¬ 
tection to domestic manufactures, and as will, without impair¬ 
ing the revenue, impose the least burden upon, and best promote 
and encourage, the great industrial interests of the country.” 

The X Vth Amendment, guaranteeing negro suffrage,was passed 
by Congress in 1869. A Liberal Republican ticket, with Horace 
Greeley at its head, was supported by the united opposition 
against Grant in 1872, but was defeated easily, and Greeley, one 
of the greatest figures in later American politics, died shortly 

81 


U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 

afterwards. The South was pacified, and the Treaty of Wash¬ 
ington made, which involved the payment of the Alabama 
claims by the English Government. 

In 1876 occurred the famous Hayes and Tilden Controversy, 
which tested the flexibility of our electoral machinery so se¬ 
verely. Tilden was the Democratic nominee, and he had an 
undoubted popular majority—4,284,265, against 4,033,295 for 
Hayes. Rival electors claimed to have been elected in Louisiana 
and Florida. Intimidation, fraud and illegal voting were 
charged, and Congress finally appointed the Electoral Commis¬ 
sion to settle the dispute, as there was nothing in the Constitu¬ 
tion to cover the circumstances. On a party vote the commission 
awarded the disputed electoral votes to the Republican candidate, 
thus making RUTHERFORD B. HAYES (1877-1SS1) nine¬ 
teenth president of the United States. Specie payment was re¬ 
sumed during this administration,and the silver coinage act passed. 

From this time on to the present the tariff issue has been the 
chief matter of debate in each campaign. In 18S0 the Republi¬ 
cans elected JAMES A. GARFIELD (1881) twentieth presi¬ 
dent. He was assassinated by a madman, Charles J. Guiteau, 
and CHESTER A. ARTHUR (18S1-18S5) became twenty- 
first president. The most important measure of this administra¬ 
tion was the passage of the Pendleton civil service reform bill. 

GROVER CLEVELAND (1885-1889), the twenty-second 
president, was the first Democrat chosen since the war. Out of 
his famous tariff reform message the Democratic platform of 
1888 was stated at St. Louis, and the country was invited to 
choose squarely between protection as represented by Benjamin 
Harrison, the Republican candidate, and a tariff revision as rep¬ 
resented by Cleveland. 

The result was, after one of the most remarkable struggles in 
American politics, already known by its well earned name of 
the Campaign of Intellect, that BENJAMIN HARRISON 
(1889— . . . ) was elected twenty-third president of the 
United States. (See page 162.) 


THE BY-WAYS OF AMERICAN POLITICS.-The minor 

American parties which have appeared and disappeared during our century and 
over of national life are the following: Anti-Renters, a New York party which 
flourished about 1841. They resisted the collection of backrentson the Van Rens¬ 
selaer manor near Albany. They had strength enough to defeat Wright, the regular 
Democratic candidate for Governor of New York. Barn-burners, New York, 
1846, seceders from the Democratic party. They were opposed to slavery extension. 
BucktailS, New York, about 1815; they supported Madison. Conservatives, 
New York and some other States, 1837; paper money Democrats. Doughfaces] 
1820, Northern members of Congress who voted in favor of the Missouri compro¬ 
mise. Hunkers, New York, a faction of the Democrats favoring the South, Barn¬ 
burners being the other factor. Know-Nothings, New York, 1854, opposed to 
naturalization of foreigners unless they had been twenty-one years in the country 

82 



U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 


LOCO-FOCOS, New York, 1835 ; a branch of the Democratic party. Liberal 
Republicans, 1872 ; Republicans who joined with the Democrats in support of 
Greeley for president. Temperance, or Prohibition, from 1830 down, in many 
States; in favor of preventing or restricting the sale of liquors. The total Prohibition 
vote at the Presidential election in 1888 was 249 , 937 . Woman's Rights, from 
i 860 down; those who favored granting to women the right of suffrage. 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Native State 

> 

w 

(J 

Inaug- 

U RATED. 



Name. 

Ancestr 

z 

u 

Q 

!/i 

H 

P4 

Year. 

Age. 

Politics. 

Place of Death. 

Goorge Washington. 

Va.... 

English... 

Va.... 

1789 

57 

Fed. . 

Mount Vernon,1799 

John Adams. 

Mass. 

English... 

Mass. 

1797 

62 

Fed. . 

Quincy, Mass.,1826 

Thomas Jefferson ... 

Va.... 

Welsh.... 

Va.... 

1801 

58 

Rep.. 

Monticello.Va. 1826 

James Madison. 

Va.... 

English... 

Va.... 

1809 

53 

Rep.. 

Montpelier.V a. 1836 

James Monroe. 

Va.... 

Scotch.... 

Va.... 

1817 

59 

Rep.. 

NewYork City, 1731 

John Quincy Adams. 

Mass. 

English... 

Mass. 

1825 

58 

Rep.. 

Washington, 1848 
Hermitage,Ten.,|45 

Andrew Jackson.... 

S.C.. 

Scot-Irish. 

Tenn 

1829 

62 

Dem.. 

Martin Van Buren.. 

N. V.. 

Dutch.... 

N. Y.. 

1837 

55 

Dem.. 

Kinderhook NY,*62 

William H. Harrison 

Va.... 

English... 

Ohio.. 

1841 

58 

Whig. 

Washington, 1841 

John Tyler. 

Va.... 

English... 

Va.... 

1841 

51 

Dem.. 

Richmond,Va, 1862 

James K. Polk. 

N. C.. 

Scot-Irish. 

Tenn. 

1845 

60 

Dem.. 

Nashville.Ten, 1849 

Zachary Taylor..... 

Va.... 

English... 

La... 

1849 

65 

Whig. 

Washington, 1850 

Millard Fillmore.... 

N. Y.. 

English... 

N. Y.. 

1850 

50 

Whig. 

Buffalo, N. Y., 187 

Franklin Pierce.. .. 

N. H. 

English... 

N. H. 

1853 

49 

Dem.. 

Concord, N.H.1869 

James Buchanan.... 

Pa. .. 

Scot-Irish. 

Pa... 

1857 

60 

Dem.. 

Wheatland, Pa, 1868 

Abraham Lincoln... 

Ky... 

English... 

Ill.... 

1861 

52 

Rep.. 

Washington, 1865 

Andrew Johnson.... 

N. C. 

English... 

Tenn. 

1865 

57 

Rep.. 

Greenville, Ten, ’75 

Ulysses S. Grant.... 

Ohio.. 

Scotch.... 

III.... 

1869 

47 

Rep.. 

MtM'Gregor NY’85 

Rutherford B. Hayes 

Ohio.. 

English... 

Ohio.. 

1877 

55 

Rep. 

Long Branch, 1881 

James A. Garfield... 

Ohio.. 

English... 

Ohio.. 

1881 

49 

Rep. . 

Chester A. Arthur... 

Vt.... 

Scot-Irish. 

N. Y.. 

1881 

61 

Rep. . 

New York City, 1886 

Grover Cleveland... 
Benjamin Harrison.. 

n. 

Ohio.. 

English... 
English... 

N. Y.. 
Ind. . . 

1885 

1889 

48 

56 

Dem.. 
Rep.. 



GENERALS COMMANDING THE U. S. ARMY. 


George Washington. 

Henry Knox. 

Josiah Harmer. 

Arthur St. Clair.. .. 
James Wilkinson.. . . 
George Washington. 
James Wilkinson... . 
Henry Dearborn.. . . 
Jacob Brown . 


From 

To 


From 

To 

1775 

1783 

Alexander Macomb. 

1828 

1841 

1783 

1784 

Winfield Scott. 

1841 

1861 

1788 

1791 

George B. McClellan 

1861 

1862 

1791 

1796 

Henry W. Halleck.. 

1862 

1864 

1796 

1798 

Ulysses S. Grant.... 

1864 

1869 

1799 

1799 

William T. Sherman 

1869 

1883 

1800 

1812 

Philip H. Sheridan. . 

1883 

1888 

1812 

1815 

John M. Schofield.. . 

1888 

• • • • 

1815 

1828 





If a railway were built to the sun, and trains upon it were 
run at the rate of 30 miles an hour, day and night, without a stop, 
it would require 350 years to make the journey from the earth to 

the sun. 


















































WARS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Statement of the Number of United States Troops Engaged. 


Wars. 

From— 

To— 

Regu¬ 

lars. 

Militia 

and 

Volun¬ 

teers. 

Total. 

War of the Revolution.. 

Apr 19,1775 

Apr 11, 1783 

130,711 

164,080 

309,781 

Northwestern Indian wars 

Sept 19,1790 

Aug 3, 1795 



8,983 

War with France. 

July 9,1798 

Sept30,1800 



*4,593 

War with Tripoli. 

June 10, 1801 

June 4, 1805 



*3,330 

Creek Indian war. 

July 27,1813 

Aug 9j 1814 

600 

13,181 

13,781 

War 1812 with Gt. Britain 

Junel8,1812 

Feb 17,1815 

85,000 

471,622 

576,622 

Seminole Indian war. 

Nov 20, 1817 

Oct 21,1818 

1,000 

6,911 

7,911 

Black Hawk Indian war. 

Apr 21, 1831 

Sept 31, 1832 

1,339 

5,126 

6,465 

Cherokee disturbance or 






removal. 

1836 

1837 


9,494 

9,494 

Creek Indian war or dis- 




turbance. 

May 5, 1836 

Sept 30,1837 

935 

12,483 

13,418 

Florida Indian war. 

Dec 23, 1835 

Aug 14. 1843 

11,169 

29,953 

41,122 

Aroostook disturbance.. 

1838 

1839 


1,500 

1,500 

War with Mexico. 

Apr 24,1846 

July 4,1848 

30,954 

73,776 

112,230 

Apache, Navajo, and 






Utah war. 

1849 

1855 

1,500 

1,061 

2,561 

Seminole Indian war. 

1856 

1858 


3,687 

2,687 

Civil wart. 

1861 

1865 


2.772,408 


* Naval forces engaged, f The number of troops on the Confederate side was 
about 600 ,oco. 

The number of casualties in the volunteer and regular 
armies of the United States, during the war of 1861-65, was re * 
ported by the Provost Marshal General in 1866 : Killed in battle, 
61,362 ; died of wounds, 34,727 ; died of disease, 183,287 ; total 
died, 279,376 ; total deserted, 199,105. Number of soldiers in the 
Confederate service who died of wounds or disease (partial state¬ 
ment), 133,821. Deserted (partial statement), 104,428. Number 
of United States troops captured during the war, 212,608 ; Con¬ 
federate troops captured, 476,169. Number of United States 
troops paroled on the field, 16,431 ; Confederate troops paroled 
on the field, 248,599. Number of United States troops who died 
while prisoners, 29,725 ; Confederate troops who died while pris¬ 
oners, 26,774. 


The Bible. 

There is no date from beginning to end in the Bible. It com¬ 
prises some 60 documents, and is supposed to have been written 
by about 40 men ; 54 miracles are recorded in the Old and 51 in 
the New Testament; total, 105. The shortest verse in the Old 
Testament is “Remember Lot’s wife.” There is one in the New 
Testament as short as John xi. 35, in point of words, but not in 
letters, viz: Thessalonians v. 16, “Rejoice evermore.” Then 
there are 2 chapters in the Bible alike verbatim, and 1 book, 
Esther, in which the Deity is not mentioned. 

84 






































THE CIVIL WAR OP 1861-85. 


Number of Men In the Union Army Furnished by Each State and 
Territory, from April 15,1861, to Close of War. 


States and 
Territories. 


Alabama. 

Arkansas. 

California. 

Colorado. 

Connecticut. 

Delaware. 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Louisiana .. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts .. 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

Nebraska. 

Nevada.... 

New Hampshire 
New Jersey. 


Number 
or Men 
Furnish’d 

Aggregate 
Reduced to 
A Three 
Years’ 
Standing. 

2,556 

1,611 

8,289 

7,836 

15,725 

15,725 

4,903 

3,697 

55,864 

50,623 

12,284 

10,322 

1,290 

1,290 

259,092 

214,133 

196,363 

153,576 

76,242 

68,630 

20,149 

18,706 

75,760 

70,832 

5,224 

4,654 

70,107 

56,776 

46,638 

41,275 

146,730 

124,104 

87,364 

80,111 

24,020 

19,693 

545 

545 

109,111 

86,530 

3,157 

2,175 

1,080 

1,080 

33,937 

30,849 

76,814 

57,908 


States and 
Territories. 

Number 
or Men 
Furnish’d 

Ag’regate 
Reduced 
to aThrek 
Years’ 
Standing. 

New York. 

North Carolina. 
Ohio. 

448,850 

3,156 

313,180 

1,810 

337,936 

23,236 

392,270 

3,156 

240,514 

1,773 

265,517 

17,866 

Oregon. 

Pennsylvania ... 
Rhode Island... 
South Carolina.. 
Tennessee ., 
Texas. 

31,092 

1,965 

33,288 

26,394 

1,632 

29,068 

Vermont. 

Virginia. 

West Virginia... 
Wisconsin. 

32,068 

91,327 

206 

16,534 

3,530 

27,714 

79,260 

206 

11,506 

3,530 

Dakota. 

Dist of Columbia 
Indian Territory 
Montana. 

New Mexico.... 
U tah. 

6,561 

4,432 

Washington Ter. 
U S Army. 

964 

964 

U S Volunteers. 
U S col’r’d troops 



93,441 

91,789 

Total. 

2,772,408 

2,320,272 


The armies of the United States were commanded during the 
war of the Rebellion by President Lincoln as commander-in¬ 
chief under the constitutional provision; and under him, as 
general commanders, by Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield 
Scott until Nov. 6, 1861; by Major General George B. McClellan 
from Nov. 6, 1861, to March ii, 1862; by Major General Henry 
W. Halleck from July' 11, 1862, to March 12, 1864 (there be¬ 
ing no general commander between March 11 and July 11, 
1862); and Lieutenant General and General U. S. Grant from 
March 12, 1864, to March 4, 1869. The first of the principal 
armies into which the force of the United States was 
divided was the Army of the Potomac. This army was 
called into existence in July, 1861, and was organized 
by Major General George B. McClellan, its first commander; 
Nov. 5, 1862, Major General A. E. Burnside took com¬ 

mand of it; Jan. 25, 1863, Major General Joe Hooker was 
placed in command, and June 27, 1863, Major General George 
G. Meade succeeded him. The Army of the Ohio was organ¬ 
ized by General D. C. Buell, under a general order from the 

85 








































































THE CIVIL WAR OF 1361-65. 

War Department dated Nov. 9, 1861, from troops in the military 
department of the Ohio. General Buell remained in command 
until Oct. 30, 1862, when he was succeeded by General W. S. 
Rosecrans. At this time the Army of the Ohio became the 
Army of the Cumberland and a new department of the Ohio 
was formed and Major General H. G. Wright assigned to the 
command thereof. He was succeed by Major General Burn¬ 
side, who was relieved by Major General J. G. Foster of the 
command of both department and army. Major General Scho¬ 
field took command Jan. 28, 1864, and Jan. 17, 1865, the de¬ 
partment was merged into the Department of the Cumberland. 
The Army of the Cumberland was formed of the Army of the 
Ohio, as above noted. It continued under the command of Gen¬ 
eral Rosecrans until October, 1863, when General George H. 
Thomas took command of it. The Army of theTennessee was 
originally the Army of the District of Western Tennessee, 
fighting as such at Shiloh. It became the Army of theTennessee 
on the concentration of troops at Pittsburgh Landing under Gen¬ 
eral Halleck, and when the Department of the Tennessee was 
formed,Oct. 16,1862, the troops serving therein were placed under 
command of Major General U. S. Grant. Oct. 27, 1863, Major 
General William T. Sherman was appointed to the command of 
this army; March 12,1864, Major General J. B. McPherson suc¬ 
ceeded him; July 30, 1864, McPherson having been killed, Major 
General O. O. Howard was placed in command, and May 19, 
I862, Major General John A. Logan succeeded him. Other 
minor armies were the Army of Virginia, which was formed by 
the consolidation of the forces under Major Generals Fremont, 
Banks and McDowell, by order of the War Department, Aug. 
12, 1862. Major General John Pope was placed in command, 
but after the disastrous defeat of this general at Manassas the 
army as such was discontinued and its troops transferred to other 
organizations. The Army of the James was formed of the Tenth 
and Fourteenth corps and cavalry, and was placed under the 
command of Major General Butler. Its operations were carried 
on in conjunction with the Army of the Potomac. Other tem¬ 
porary arrangements of the troops formed the Army of the Mis¬ 
sissippi in the Mississippi River operations in 1862; the Army of 
the Gulf in Louisiana in May, 1863; the Army of West Vir¬ 
ginia, in the valley of the Shenandoah, in May, 1864, and the 
army of the Middle Military Division in Virginia in the fall of 
1864. 


A HORSE will live 25 days without solid food, merely drinking 
water; 17 days without either eating or drinking; and only 5 
days when eating solid food without drinking. 

86 



19 

20 

5 

12 

21 

10 

-14 

20 

21 

7 

7 

8 

18 

862 

8 

8 

16 

8 

14 

23 

6-7 

10 

5 

25 

29 

SO 

31 

1 

8 

9 

26 

27 

1 

5 

9 

22 

27 

29 

30 

-30 

1 

14 

15 

17 

20 

5-5 

8 

7 

13 

29 

863 

11 

3 

1 


BAmsa of dim was* 


Place. 


Federal Loss. 


Confed. Loss. 


Bombard’nt Ft. Sumter. 

Riot Baltimore. 

Big Bethel, Va. 

Carthage, Mo. 

Rich Mountain, W. Va... 
Bull Run, Va. 

Wilson’s Creek, Mo. 

Cheat Mountain, W. Va. 

Lexington, Mo. 

Ball’s Bluff, Va. 

Belmont, Mo. 

Port Royal, S. C. 


.no one hurt 

q k 7 w 

.if> k, 34 w,’ 6 m 

.13 k, 31 w 

.11 k, 35 w 

.. .4500 k; w, p, 28 c 
..481 k, 1011 w, 700 p 
.223 k, 721 w, 292 m 

.13 k, 20 w, 60 p 

..42 k, 108 w, 1624 p 
. .220 k, 266 w, 500 p 
.. .84 k, 288 w, 285 m 
. 8 k, 23 w, 250 p 


Piketon, Ky. 

Milford, Mo. 

Mill Spring, Ky.. ; . 

Roanoke Island, N. C... 

Fort Henry, Tenn. 

Fort Donelson, Tenn... 

Pea Ridge, Ark. 

Nevvbern, N. C. 

Winchester, Va . 

Pittsburg Landing, Tenn. 

Island No. io. 

Williamsburg, Va. 

Winchester, Va... . 

Hanover C. H., Va. 

Corinth, Minn. 

Fair Oaks, Va. 

Fair Oaks, Va. 

Cross Keys, Va. 

Port Republic, Va. 

Chickahominy, Va. 

Gaines Mills, Va. 

Malvern Hill, Va. 

Baton Rouge, La. 

Gedar Mountain, Va. 

Gallatin, Tenn... 

Kettle Run, Va. 

Groveton, Va. 

Bull Run 2 nd. 

Richmond, Ky. 

Chantilly, Va. 

South mountain, Md. 

Harper’s F’y, 3 d’ys* siege 

Antietam, Md. 

Iuka, Miss. 

Corinth, Miss. 

Perryville, Ky. 

Prairie Grove, Ark. 

Fredericksburg, Va. 

Vicksburg . 

Stone River, Tenn. 

Fort Hindman, Ark. 

Fort Donelson, Tenn.... 
c uffolk, Ya. 


. 6 k, 24 w 

.2 k, 17 w 

.39 k, 207 w 

.50 k, 150 w 

.446 k, 1735 w, 150 p 
... .1351 k, w and m 

.91 k, 466 w 

.100 k, 400 w 

1614 k, 7721 w, 3963 m 


2073 k & w, 623 p 


53 k, 526 m 


890 k, 3627 w, 1222 p 

.5739 k & w 

.125 k, 500 w 

.. .67 k, 361 w, 574 m 

.80 k, 150w 

.7500 k, w and m 

. 1000 k, w and m 

.250 k, w and m 

.1500 k, w and m 

... 64 k, 100 w, 200 p 

.800 k, w and m 

.6000 k, and w 

.800 k, 4000 w, 3000 p 
..200 k,700w, 2000 p 

.1300 k and w 

. 443 k, 1806 w, 76 m 
.80 k, 120 w, 11583 p 

.12500 loss 

.135 k, 527 w 

315 k, 1812 w, 232 m 

.3200 k, w and m 

.495 k, 600 w 

1512 k, 6000 w, 2078 p 
. .191 k, 982 w, 756 m 

.1533 k, 6000 w 

. 1000 k, w & m 

. 12 k, 20 w 

_130 k, 718 w, 5 m 


.5 w 

,... 7 k, 8 w 
,.. no report 
.. .250 k&w 
.140 k, 150 w 
..1852 k&w 


. ..421 k, 1317 w, 3 m 

......100 k&w, 20 p 

.25 k, 75 w 

.36 k, 264 w, 2 p 

..261 k, 427 w, 278 m 
.. k and w no report 

_2500 p, 42 guns c 

.400 k and w, 2000 p 

.1300 p 

.-..192 k, 140 p 

-30 k, 50 w, 2500 p 

231 k, 1007w, 15000 p 
1100 k, 2500 w, 1600 p 
.. .50 k, 200 w, 200 p 
... .600 k&w, 300 p 
1728 k, 8012 w, 959 m 

.17 k, 6300 p 

.700 k, 1000 w, 300 p 


,500 k&w, 600p 


.2800 k, 3897 w 

. 8000 k &w 

. 600 k&w 

. 1000 k, w & m 

. 1000 k&w 

.About the same 

.Nearly 5000 

.600 k, w & m 

.1000 k, 1500 w 

. 110 k&w 

.. .800 k&w, 1000 p 

. 12000 k, w & m 

.700 k, 3000 w 

.250 k, 500w 

.800 k&w 

500 k, 2343 w, 1500 p 

.1500 k&w 

.15000 loss 

. .263 k, 400 w, 600 p 
1423 k, 2268 p. 5692 w 
1300 k, 3000 w, 200 p 

.1500 k&w 

.1800 k&w 

.no report 

. .9000 k&w, 1000 p 
.. .550 k&w, 5C00 p 
..100 k, 400 w, 300 p 
.1500 k, w & m 


87 
































































































PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR.— Continued. 


Date. 

Place. 

Federal Loss. 

CONFED. LOSS. 

May 1 

2 

“ 2-3 

“ 12 

“ 14 

“ 16 

“ 18-22 

“ 27 

June 6 

“ 9 

“ 14 

“ 26 

July 1-2-3 

“ 4 

“ 4 

“ 5 

“ 8 
“ 18-19 

Sept. 9 

“ 19-20 

“ 14 

Dec. 4 

“ 23-25 

“ 25 

“ 27 

“ 27-30 

Mar. 25,1864 
Apr. 8-9 

“ 17-20 

May 5-7 

«« M 

“ 12 
•* 12-15 

“ 13-15 

“ 25-28 

June 1 

“ 15-18 

22 

“ 27 

July y 

“ 20 

“ 99 

“ 27-30 

Aug. 5-20 

“ 15-18 

“ 19 

“ 25 

“ 31 

Sept, 19 

“ 21 

“ 26 

29—Oct. 1 
Oct. 19 

“ 26 

“ 27 

Nov. 30 

Dec. 15 


2000 k, w & m 



2000 k & w 


Chancellorsville, Va. 

L50U0 k & w, 17000 p 
... 40 k. 240 w, 6 m 

.18000 k& w, 5000 p 
.400 k & w 


.426 k, 1842 w 

_ 400 k, w & m 


.29 k, 242 w 

.2600 k, w & m 


.2500 loss 

.no report 

Port Hudson 

.900 k, w & m 

.600 k, w & m 


127 k, 287 w, 157 m 

.200 k, 500 w 



.750 k, w & m 


.2000 k. w & m 

.850 k, w & m 

Shelhyville, Tsnn 

.. ..85 k, 468 w, 13 m 

.634 p.no rep’t k & w 
total loss 37000 


.total loss 28198 

Vicksburg surrenders.... 
T-Telena, Ark 

.245 k, 3688 w, 303 p 
.250 k, w & m 

.9100 k & w, 30000 p 
.. .500 k & w, 1000 P 
.4000 P 



Pnrt T-fnd<;nn surrenders 


.5500 p 

Pt Warmer, S. C 

700 k, w & m 

.500 k, 331 w 



.2000 p 

Chickamauga. 

1644 k,9262 w,4945 m 
.51 k,329w 

.17000 k, w & m 

.. .1200 k & v/, 800 p 
.1610 p 

Bristow Station. Va. 


. 600 k & w 

Chattanooga 

.4000 k & w 

.16000 k, w & m 




Binggold, Ga 

800 k, w & itT 

.300 p 

Locust Grove, Va. 

.... 1000 k, w & m 


Paducah. Kv. 

.14 k, 46 w 

.1000 k & w 

TVfansfield, Tia 

500 k&w, 1500 p 

.2000 p 

Plymouth, N. C. 

150 k, 1700 p 

.1500 k & w 

Wilderness, Va 

.loss 30000 

.loss 30000 

Spottslyvania, Va 

. loss 10000 

.loss 10000 

Spottsylvania, Va 



Ft. Darling, Va. 

. 5000 k, w & m 

. no report 

Resaca, Ga . 

... 700 k, 2800 w 

.no report 

Dallas, Ga. 

.1800 k & w 

.. .300 p, 4000 k & w 
.8000 k, w & m 

Cold Harbor. Va. 

.9000 k. w & m 

Petersburg!). Va . 

. loss 10000 

.no report 

Weldon R. R , Va 

000 k & w. 19.50 D 

.no report 

Kennesaw Mt., Ga ..... 

1000 k & w 

.no report 

Monocracy, Md . 

1000 k & w 

.no report 

Peach Tree Creek, Ga-.. 
Atlanta. Ga . 

.1713 k, w & m 

. ,3521k & w 

. .5000 k & w, 1000 p 
.10000 k & w 

Petersburgh, Va . 

5000 k, w & m 


Mobile Bay, Ala. 

.120 k, 88 w 

no rep’t k&w, 1756 p 

Deep Bottom. Va .. 

... loss 4000 

6 Mile Station, Va .. 

. 3000 k & w 

.1500 p 

Weldon R. R., Va. 

1000 k& w. 3000 p 


Atlanta, Ga. 

50 k, 50 m. 439 w 


Winchester, Va. 


500 k, 4000 w, 2500 p 
... .400 k&w, 1100 p 
.1500 k&w 

Fisher’s Hill . 


Ironton, Mo. 


Petersburg, Va. 


.„ . .2800 k&w 

Cedar Creek, Va. 


. .2800 k&w, 1300 p 
900 k, 3800 P 

Nims’ Creek, Mo. 

.2000 p, 1000 k &v. 

Hatcher’s Run, Va. 

Franklin, Tenn. 

800 m, 400 k, 1500 w 
189 k, 1033 w, 1104 ir 

1750 k, 3800 w, 702 p 

Nashville, Tenn. 


88 





















































































































PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR.— Concluded. 


Date. 

Place. 

Federal Loss. 

' ’-ra 

Confed. Loss. 

Jan. 

15,1865 

Ft. Fisher. 

.110 k, 536 w 

440 k & w, 2500 £ 

i I 

20-22 

Wilmington. N. C. 

.250 k & w 

. 1072 £ 

Feb. 

27 

Waynesboro’, Va. 


. 5 k, 1352 F 

If 

II 

Kingston, N. C. 


..1200 k& w, 2400 P 
.327 k, 373 P 

If 

II 

Averasboro’, N. C. 

.74 k,774 w 

Mar. 

19 

Bentonville. N. C. 

.loss 1646 

.167 k, 1625 P 

It 

25-27 

Petersburgh.Va. 

180 k. 1240 w. 990 m 

...2200 k&w,2800 P 
.5000 P 

Apr. 

1 

Five Forks, Va. 


*1 

2 

Selma, Ala . 


.3000 P 

a 

2-3 

Petersburgh & Richmond. 

.8000 k, w & m 


u 

6 

Farmville & Sailors Ck 


.6000 P 

ci 

9 

Surrender of Gen. Lee 


.26115 P 

a 

11 

Ft. Blakely, Mobile. 

.2000 k & w 

....500 k &w, 4300 P 

<1 

12 

Surrender of Mong’y, Ala. 


.2700 p, 100 g 

n 

12 

Salisbury, N. C 


.1800 P 

11 

26 

Surrender of Gen.J ohnston 
Surrender of Gen. Morgan 
Surrender of Gen. Taylor. 
Surrenderof TallahasseeFl 


.27500 P 

May 

II 

1 


.1200 P 

4 


. 10000 P 

If 

10 

.70 k 

.8000 P 

*t 

10 

Near Boco, Chico, Tex... 

.70 


14 

10 

Capture of Jeff. Davis.... 



ii 

26 

Surrender of Gen. Smith. 


.20000 p 


In addition to the battles given above there were 421 minor battles, engage¬ 
ments and skirmishes. 


Principal Naval Battles of tlie Civil War. 

1862, Feb. 6—Fort Henry, Tenn., captured by Commodore 

Foote. 

Feb. 8—Roanoke Island, N. C., captured by Commodore 
Goldsborough and Gen. Burnside. 

16— Fort Donelson, Tenn., combined forces of Gen. 

Grant and Commodore Foote. 

Mar. 8—Confederate ram Merrimac “sinks” U. S. Frig¬ 
ates Cumberland and Congress, Hampton 
Roads, Va. 

9—Federal Monitor disables the Merrimac. 

April 6—Pittsburgh Landing. 

8—Capture of Island No. 10. 

11—Fort Pulaski, Ga., caotured by land and naval 
forces. 

24—Forts Jackson, St. Phillip and New Orleans. 

May 13—Natchez, Miss., captured by Admiral Farragut. 
July 1—Malvern Hill. 

1863, Jan. 11—Fort Hindman, Ark., Admiral Porter. 

11—U. S. steamer Hatteras sunk by Confederate 
Alabama. 

17— Monitor Weehawken captures Confederate ram 

Atlanta. 


89 















































THE CIVIL WAX OP im~G5> 


May 18—Vicksburg, Miss., Admiral Porter 
July 8—Port Hudson, Miss., captured. 

8—Natchez, Miss. 

1864, June 19—U. S. steamer Kearsarge “ sinks the Alabama ” of! 

Cherbourg, France. 

Aug. 5—Mobile, Ala., Admiral Farragut. 

1865, Jan. 15—Fort Fisher, N. C., captured by Gen. Terry ana 

Commodore Porter. 

During the Civil War the Federal Navy was increased in two 
years to over 400 vessels, the greater part of which were used in 
blockading Southern ports ; notwithstanding their vigilance and 
effectiveness, many Confederate cruisers managed to escape the 
blockade and destroy the Northern merchant vessels. 

At the present time (1880) not one-half the vessels belonging 
to the navy are in active service ; the greater portion of those 
in commission are employed in what is called squadron service. 
There are seven squadrons, viz, the European, the Asiatic, the 
North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, the North Pacific, the 
South Pacific and the Gulf squadrons. These squadrons are 
under command of a high naval officer of the rank of commo¬ 
dore or rear admiral, whose ship is called the flag-ship of the 
squadron. 

Federal Vessels Captured or Destroyed toy Con¬ 
federate 44 Cruisers.” 


Ships. 80 

Brigs. 46 

Barks . 84 

Schooners. 67 


Steamboats. 4 

Gunboats. 2 

Cutter. 1 

Tug. 1 


Vessels Captured or Destroyed for Violation of ttie 
Blockade, or in Battle, from may, 

1861, to may, 1865. 


Schooners. 735 

Sloops. 155 

Steamers. 262 

Barks. 27 

Brigs. 30 

Ships. 13 

Ironclads and rams. 16 

Brigantines. 2 

Miscellaneous 


Gunboats.. 3 

Propellers. 4 


Pilot boats. 

Boats. 

Yachts. ... 
Tugs. 
Barkentine. 
Pungy 


2 

8 

2 

3 

1 

1 


86 


Tin, when compressed in powder, becomes solid under a pres¬ 
sure of ten tons on the square inch, zinc at thirty-eight tons, 
antimony at thirty-eight tons, aluminum at thirty-eight tons, 
bismuth at thirty-eight tons, and copper at thirty-three tons. 

90 






























A k Cost of fteeeut War*. 

Crimean war. £340,000,000 

Italian war of 1859 . 60 , 000,000 

American civil war—North. 940 , 000,000 

“ “ “ —South. 460 , 000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein war. 7 , 000,000 

Austrian and Prussian war, 1866 . 66 , 000,000 

Expeditions to Mexico, Morocco, Paraguay, etc., 

(estimated). 40 , 000,000 

Franco-Prussian war. 500 , 000,000 

Russian and Turkish war, 1877 . 210 , 000,000 

Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 . 30 , 000,000 


<£ 2 , 653 , 000,000 

This would allow $10 for every man, woman and child on the 
nabitable globe. It would make two railways all around the world 
at $ 250,000 per mile each. These figures are furnished by the 
Peace Society, London. 


Losses from War in Twenty-Five Years (1855-80.) 

Killed in battle, or died 
of wounds and disease. 


Crimean war . 750,000 

Italian war, 1859 . 45,000 

War of Schleswig-Holstein . 3,000 

American civil war — the North. 280,000 

“ “ “ —the South. 200,000 

War between Prussia, Austria and Italy, 1866 . 45,000 

Expeditions to Mexico, Cochin China, 

Morocco, Paraguay, etc. 65,000 

Franco-German war of 1870 - 71 —France... 155,000 

“ “ “ “ “—Germany. 60,000 

*Russian and Turkish war of 1877 . 225,000 

Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 . 40,000 

Total. 1 , 868,000 


Length and Cost of American Wars. 

Wars. Length. Cost. 

1 . War of the revolution.. . 7 years— 1775-1782 $ 135 , 193,703 

2 . Indian war in Ohio Ter. 1790 . 


3 . War with the Barbary St 

4 . Tecumseh Indian war. . 

5 . War with Great Britain. 

6. Algerine war. 

7 . First Seminole war. 

8. Black Hawk war. 

9 . Second Seminole war. .. 

10 . Mexican war. 

11 . Mormon war. 

12 . Civil war. 


1803-1804 . 

1811 . 

3 years— 1812-1815 107 , 159,003 

1815 . 

1817 . 

1832 . 

1845 . 

2 years— 1846-1848 66 , 000,000 

1856 . 

4 years— 1861-1865 $ 6 , 500 , 000,000 


*About thirty thousand skeletons of Russian and Turkish soldiers were shipped 
to England in 1881 , as manure, in the form of bones or bone d L 91 ] 






































GREAT BATTLES OF HIS TORT. 

The number placed hors-de-combat in battle are not relatively 
so large as formerly, as the table below will show: 



Men Engaged. 

Hors-de-combat. 


Ratio. 

Thrasymene .... 

. 65,000 

17,000 

27 

per cent. 

Cannae. 

. 146,000 

52,000 

34 

U 

Bannockburn ,... 

. 135,000 

38,000 

28 

U 

Agincourt. 

. 62,000 

11,400 

18 

u 

Crecy. 

. 117,000 

31,200 

27 

a 

Marengo. 

. 58,000 

13,000 

22 

u 

Austerlitz ... 

. 170,000 

23,000 

13 

u 

Borodino. 

. 250,000 

78,000 

31 

u 

Waterloo. 

. 145,000 

51,000 

35 

u 

Alma. 

103,000 

8,400 

8 

u 

Sadowa. 

. 402,000 

33,000 

8 

u 

Gravelotte. 

.... 320,000 

48,500 

15 

a 

Gettysburg. 

. 140,000 

8,000 

5 

u 


According to Napoleon, the proportions of an army should 
be 70 per cent, infantry, 17 per cent, cavalry, and 13 per cent, 
between artillery, engineers and train. 

The proportion of men capable of bearing arms is estimated 
at 25 per cent, of the population. 

At the close of the Franco-German war the Germans took 
from the French 7.234 pieces of cannon, including 3,485 field 
pieces and 3,300 fortress guns. At the battle of Waterloo the 
British artillery fired 9,467 rounds, or one for every Frenchman 
killed. 

The Decisive Battles of History. 

Actium, B.C. 31. The combined fleets of Antony and Cleo¬ 
patra defeated by Octavius, and imperialism established in the 
person of Octavius. 

Philippi, B.C. 42. Brutus and Cassius defeated by Octavius 
and Antony. The fate of the Republic decided. 

Metaurus, B.C. 207. The Carthaginians, under Hasdrubul, 
were defeated by the Romans, under Caius and Marcus Livius. 

Arbela, B.C. 331. The Persians defeated by the Macedonians 
and Greeks under Alexander the Great. End of the Persian 
empire. 

Syracuse, B.C. 414. The Athenians defeated by the Syracu¬ 
sans and their allies, the Spartans, under Gylippus. 

Marathon, B.C. 490. The Athenians, under Miltiades, de¬ 
feated the Persians under Datis. Free government preserved. 

Winfeld-Lippe, A.D. 9. Teutonic independence established 
by the defeat of the Roman legions under Varus at the hands of 
the Germans under Arminius (Hermann). 

Chalons, A.D. 451 . The Huns, under. Attila, called the 

92 















DECISIVE BATTLES OF HIS TORT. 

“ Scourge of God,” defeated by the confederate armies of 
Romans and Visigoths. 

Tours, A.D. 732* The Saracens defeated by Charles Martel 
and Christendom rescued from Islam. 

Hastings, A.D. 1066. Harold, commanding the English army, 
defeated by William the Conqueror, and a new regime established 
in England by the Normans. 

Siege of Orleans, A.D. 1429. The English defeated by the 
French under Joan of Arc. 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada, A.D. 1588. England saved 
from Spanish invasion. 

Lutzen, A.D 1632. Decided the religious liberties of Germany 
Gustavus Adolphus killed. 

Blenheim, A.D. 1704. The French and Bavarians, undei 
Marshal Tallard, defeated by the English and their allies, undei 
Marlborough. 

Pultowa, A.D. 1709. Charles XII., of Sweden, defeated bj 
the Russians under Peter the Great. 

Saratoga, A.D. 1 777 - Critical battle of the American Warol 
Independence. The English defeated by the Americans undei 
Gen. Gates. 

Valmy, A.D. 1792. An invading army of Prussians, Aus- 
trians and Hessians, under the Duke of Brunswick, defeated bj 
the French under Kellermann. The first success of the Republic 
against foreigners. 

Trafalgar. On the 21st of October, A.D. 1805, the great naval 
battle of Trafalgar was fought. The English defeated the French 
and destroyed Napoleon’s hopes to successfully invade England. 

Waterloo, A.D. 1815. The French, under Napoleon, defeated 
bv the allied armies of Russia, Austria, Prussia and England, 
under Wellington. 

Siege of Sebastopol, A.D. 1854-5. The Russians succumbed 
to the beleaguering armies of England, France and Turkey, and 
the result was delay in the expansion of the Russian Empire. 

Gettysburg, July, A.D. 1863. The deciding battle of the war 
for the Union. The Confederates under Gen. Lee defeated by 
♦he Union forces under Meade. 

Sedan, A.D. 1870. The decisive battle of the Franco-German 
war. 

Slavery ass cl Serfdom. 

Some of the wealthy Romans had as many as 10,000 slaves. 
The minimum price fixed by the law of Rome was $80, but after 
great victories they could sometimes be bought for a few shillings 
on the field of battle. The day’s wages of a Roman gardener 
were about *6 cents, and his value about $300, while a black- 

93 


SLA VERT AND SERFDOM. 


smith was valued at about $700, a cook at $2,000, an actress at 
$4,000, and a physician at $11,000. 

The number of slaves emancipated in the British Colonies in 
1834 was 780,993, the indemnity aggregating, in round figures, 
$100,000,000. In Brazil, in 1876, there were 1,510,800 slaves, 15 
per cent, of the entire population. These were held by 41,000 
owners, averaging 37 to each owner. In 1882 the number of 
slaves was 1,300,000. Owing to the gradual abolition of slavery 
in Brazil by law it is expected that it will be entirely obsolete in 


1900. 





Slavery in the United States. 


Year. 

Number. 

Year. 

N umber. 

1790 . 

. 697,900 

1830 . 

. 2 , 009,030 

1800 . 

. 893,040 

1840 . 

. 2 , 487,500 

1810 . 

. 1 , 191,400 

1850 . 

. 3 , 204,300 

1820 . 

. 1 , 538,100 

1860 . 

. 3 , 979,700 


Serfdom in Russia. 


There were 47,932,000 serfs in Russia in 1861, as follows : 
Crown serfs, 22,851,000; appanage, 3,326,000; held by nobles, 
21,755,000. The cost of redemption was, in round numbers, 
about $325,000,000, as follows : 


Mortgages remitted. $ 152 , 000,000 

Government scrip. 101 , 000,000 

Paid by serfs... 52 , 000,000 

Balance due. 20 , 000,000 


The indemnity to the nobles was $15 per serf. The lands are 
mortgaged to the state till 1912. The lands ceded to Crown 
serfs are mortgaged only till 1901. The item of “ mortgages 
remitted ” is the amount due by nobles to the Imperial Bank 
and canceled. 

Austrian Servitude (1840). 


Value. 

Labor (two days per week).$ 175 , 000,000 

Tithe of crops, etc. 60 , 000,000 

Male tribute, timber. 7 , 000,000 

Female tribute, spun wool. 9 , 000,000 

Fowl, eggs, butter. 5 , 000,000 


Total.$ 256 , 000,000 


There were 7.000,000 serfs, whose tribute averaged more than 
$35 per head, which was, in fact, the rent of their farms. Some 
Bohemian nobles had as many as 10,000 serfs. The redemption 
was effected by giving the nobles 5 per cent. Government scrip, 
and land then rose 50 per cent, in value. 

94 






















German Serfs* 


Iw 1848 the state took 60,000,000 acres from the nobles, leaving 
them still 25,000,000 acres, and gave the former among the serfs. 
Indemnity as follows: 1. Government scrip, $900 for each serf 
family, to nobleman. 2. Land tax, $15 per annum, transferred 
to peasant. 3. Interest, $35 per annum for 47 years, to be paid 
by peasant to the state, being 4 per cent, on cost of redemption. 


Famous Giants and Dwarfs. 


The most noted giants of ancient and modern times are as 
follows: 


Period. 

B.C. 1063 . 
Claudius Caesar. 
A.D. 1578 . 


Name. Place. Height, Feet, 

Goliath.Palestine. 11.0 

Galbara.Rome. 9.9 

John Middleton.England.. 9.3 

Frederick’s Swede...Sweden. 8.4 . 

Cujanus.Finland. 7.9 . 

Gilly.Tyrol. 8.1 . 

Patrick Cotter.Cork. 8.7 1806 . 

Chang Gow.Pekin. 7.8 1880 . 

Many of the great men of history have been rather small in 
stature. Napoleon was only about 5 ft. 4 in., Washington was 
5 ft. 7 in. One of the greatest of American statesmen, Alexander 
H. Stephens, never excelled 115 pounds in weight, and in his old 
age his weight was less than 100 pounds. 

The more notable human mites are named below: 


Name. Height, inches. Date of Birth. Place of Birth. 

Count Borowlaski . 39 1739 Warsaw. 

Tom Thumb(Chas. S. Stratton) 31 1837 New York. 

Mrs. Tom Thumb. 32 1842 “ 

Che-Mah . 25 1838 China. 

Lucia Zarate. 20 1863 Mexico. 

General Mite. 21 1864 New York. 


Evictions in Ireland. 

The total number of families evicted in Ireland for 33 years is 
482,000 as below: 


Years. Evicted. Re-admitted. Net Evictions. 

1849 - 51 ..... 263,000 73,000 190,000 

1852-60 . 110,000 28,000 82,000 

1861-70 . 47,000 8,000 39,000 

1871-80 . 41,000 6,000 35,000 

1881-82 . 21,000 4,000 17,000 


Total. 482,000 119,000 363,000 


The number of persons actually evicted was over two millions 
(say 70,000 per annum). 


95 


































Great Financial Panics. 

The most remarkable crises since the beginning of the present 
century have been as follows: 

1814. England, 240 banks suspended. 

1825. Manchester, failures 2 millions. 

1831. Calcutta, failures,15 millions. 

1837. United States, “ Wild-cat” crisis; all banks closed. 

1839. Bank of England saved by Bank of France. Severe also 
in France, where 93 companies failed for 6 millions. 

1844. England. State loans to merchants. Bank of England 
reformed. 

1847. England, failures 20 millions; discount 13 per cent. 

18157. United States, 7,200 houses failed for 111 millions. 

1866. London, Overend-Gurney crisis; failures exceeded 100 
millions. 

1869. Black Friday in New York (Wall street), September 24. 

Excessive Heat fa tfie Past. 

In 1303 and 1304 the Rhine, Loire and Seine ran dry. The 
heat in several French provinces during the summer of 1705 was 
equal to that of a glass furnace. Meat could be cooked by 
merely exposing it to the sun. Not a soul dare venture out be¬ 
tween noon and 4 p. m. In 1718 many shops had to close. The 
theaters never opened their doors for three months. Not a drop 
of water fell during six months. In 1773 the thermometer rose 
to 118 degrees. In 1778 the heat of Bologna was so great that a 
great number of people were stifled. There was not sufficient air 
for the breath, and people had to take refuge under the ground. 
In July, 1793, the heat again became intolerable. Vegetables 
were burned up, and fruit dried on the trees. The furniture and 
wood-work in dwelling-houses cracked and split up; meat went 
bad in an hour. 

Summer Heat in Various Countries. 

The following figures show the extreme summer heat in the 
various countries of the world : Bengal and the African desert, 
150 0 Fahrenheit; Senegal and Guadaloupe, 130 0 ; Persia, 125 0 ; 
Calcutta and Central America, 120 0 ; Afghanistan and the Ara¬ 
bian desert, no°; Cape of Good Hope and Utah, 105 0 ; Greece, 
104 0 ; Arabia, 103 0 ; Montreal, 103 0 ; New York, 102 0 ; Spain, 
India, China, Jamaica, ioo°; Sierra Leone, 94 0 ; France, Den¬ 
mark, St. Petersburg, Shanghai, the Burman Empire, Buenos 
Ayres, and the Sandwich Islands, 90 0 ; Great Britain, Siam, and 
Peru, 85°; Portugal, Pekin and Natal, 8o°; Siberia, 77 0 ; Aus¬ 
tralia and Scotland, 75 0 ; Italy, Venezuela and Madeira, 73 0 ; 
Prussia and New Zealand, 70 0 ; Switzerland and Hungary, 66°; 
Bavaria, Sweden, Tasmania and Moscow, 65°; Patagonia and 
the Falkland Isles, 55 0 ; Iceland, 45 0 ; Nova Zembla, 34 0 . 

96 “ 


Severest Cold on Record. 

1234. Mediterranean frozen ; traffic with carts. 

1420. Bosphorus frozen. 

1468. Wine at Antwerp sold in blocks. 

1658. Swedish artillery crossed the Sound. 

1766. Snow knee-deep at Naples. 

1789. Fahrenheit thermometer marked 23 0 below zero at Frank¬ 
fort, and 36° below at Basle. 

1809. Moscow, 48° below zero, greatest cold recorded there; 
mercury frozen. 

1829. Jakoutsk, Siberia, 73 0 below zero on the 25th of January ; 
greatest cold on record. 

1846. December marked 25 0 below zero at Pontarlier; lowest 
ever marked in France. 

1864. January, Fahrenheit stood at zero in Turin ; greatest cold 
recorded in Italy. 

Captain Parry, in his Arctic explorations, suffered for some 
time 51 degrees below zero. Frost is diminishing in Canada with 
the increase of population, as shown by the fact that Hudson’s 
Bay -was closed, from i 82S-’37, 184 days per annum, and from 
1871-80 only 179 days per annum. 

The Great Famines of History. 

Walford mentions 160 famines since the nth century, namely: 
England, 57; Ireland 34; Scotland, 12; France, 10; Germany, 
11; Italy, etc., 36. The worst in modern times have been: 


Country. Date. No. of Victims. 

France. 1770 48,000 

Ireland. 1847 1 , 029,000 

India. 1866 1 , 450,000 


Deaths from hunger and want were recorded as follows in 
1879, according to'Mulhall: Ireland, 3,789; England, 312; Lon¬ 
don, 101; France, 260. The proportion per 1,000 deaths was, re¬ 
spectively, 37.6, .6, 1.2, .3. 

Remarkable Plagnes of Modern Times. 


Date. 

Place. 

Deaths. 

Weeks. 

Deaths per Week. 

1656. 

.. .Naples . 

.. .380,000 

28 

10,400 

1665. 

... London . 

... 68,800 

33 

2,100 

1720. 

... Marseilles . 

... 39,100 

36 

1,100 

1771. 

. . . Moscow. 

... 87,800 

32 

2,700 

1778. 

. . .Constantinople . . . 

... 170,000 

18 

9,500 

1798. 

. . .Cairo . 

... 88,000 

25 

3,500 

1812. 

. . .Constantinople .. . 

... 144,000 

13 

11,100 

1834. 

.. .Cairo . 

... 57,000 

18 

3,200 

1835. 

. . .Alexandria . 

... 14,900 

17 

900 

1871 . 

.. .Buenos Ayres. ... 

... 26,300 

11 

2,400 


97 















The Newest Game 


Takes the form of an information party, and is proving immensely 
popular. The game, as described by the Boston Traveller, is begun by passing to 
each gentleman a card and to the ladies small pieces of paper, which should be 
numbered. Those who discover the same number on their card and! paper are 
partners for the game. 

Each couple must think of a question, sensible or ridiculous, historical or in re¬ 
gard to the weather, to be written on the cards, after which the cards are to be 
gathered together, and the leader reads each in turn, giving a few moments for 
the partners to consider the subject and write the answer, which should be read 
aloud in turn. This is where the fun of the game begins, as many of the answers 
are exceedingly queer. 

Those having a correct answer mark their card 10, a wrong answer 0, and 
if the answer is anywhere near right it is counted 5. When all are added, 
prizes may be distributed as in progressive games for the best and poorest record. 

The instructive part of the game is the discussion which follows the questions. 
The height of Bunker Hill monument is what everybody living near it ought to 
know, and yet, at an information party held a few e/enings ago, only one person 
In a company of twenty was sure of the exact number of feet. 


“The Earth is the Lord’s.” 

Lord of the lambkin and the lion. 

Lord of Ben Lomond and Mount Zion, 

Of Israel and Italy, 

Watching in sweet tranquillity, 

I worship Thee! 

Lord of the glow-worm and the planet. 

Lord of dim Patmos and grim Thanet, 

Ofjordan’s flood and Highland Dee*, 

Touched by their waves of harmony, 

I worship Thee! 

Lord of the sunrise and the sundown. 

Lord of Jerusalem and London, 

Of ruined Babylon, Rome the free. 

Awed by sad tales of tragedy, 

I worship Thee! 

Lord of the well-spring and the geyser. 

Lord of Jew Paul and Roman Caesar, 

Of England and deep Germany, 

Dreaming of wondrous time to be, 

I worship Thee! 

Lord of the lark—heaven’s happy roamer,— 

Lord of King David and blind Homer, 

Of Scotland and green Galilee, 

Illumed by fires of memory, 

I worship Thee! 

Lord of the dewdrop and the ocean. 

Lord of each heart’s divine emotion, 

Of heaven-born science, piercing free 
To the sweet soul of mystery, 

I worship Thee! 

Teach me, dear God, and make me lowly. 

Purge me with light, and make me holy; 

Let me be crucified, and be 
Christ-like, with Christ’s humility, 

98 Adoring Thee! —' Wm. Freeland. 



Religion in America. 



Churches. 

Ministers. 

Communi¬ 

cants. 

Adventists. 

1,344 

775 

91,769 

Baptists. 

37,156 

26,545 

3 , 336,553 

Congregationalists.. .. 

3,936 

8,723 

387,619 

Friends. 

392 

200 

96,000 

German Evangelical Church 

550 

430 

80,000 

Lutherans. 

6,130 

3,429 

785,987 

Methodists. 

41,271 

24,485 

3 , 943,875 

Mennonites... 

500 

450 

80,000 

Moravians. . 

84 

70 

9,928 

New Jerusalem. 

87 

92 

3,994 

Presbvterians. 

11,783 

8,834 

966,437 

Protestant Episcopal. 

3,109 

3,664 

351 , 6«9 

Reformed. 

1,942 

1,320 

243,$25 

Roman Catholics. 

Schwendfeldians ... 

6,241 

6,546 

6 , 832,954 

700 

20,000 

Unitarians. 

362 

434 

Universalists. 

719 

713 

36,238 

Total in United States. . .. 

115,610 

81,717 

17 , 267,878 


Indian Country. 

The entire extent of territory now in a state of reservation 
for Indian purposes, including all portions of the Indian Terri¬ 
tory, whether in fact occupied or unoccupied by Indians, is 112,- 
413,440 acres, being equivalent to an average of 456 acres for 
each Indian, computed on the last reported number of the total 
population, including those estimated as outside the reservations. 
Of this area about 81,020,129 acres are within the scope of the 
general allotment law of 1887, and afford an average for the 
population residing upon such lands, amounting to 173,985, of 
about 465 acres to each. It will be seen that, by the execution 
of the general allotment law and breaking up of the reservations, 
a wide area of the public domain will be opened to settlement. 

The Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Semi- 
noles, constituting the five civilized tribes; the Osages, Miamis, 
Peorias, and Sacs and Foxes of the Indian territory, and the 
Seneca nation in New York are excepted from the provisions of 
the allotment act. The territory occupied by them embraces 
21,969,695 acres, not counting therewith the 6,024,239 acres of 
the Cherokee outlet, the 1,887,801 acres known as Oklahoma, 
and the 1,511,576 acres lying in the Indian territory south of the 
north fork of the Red river. The number of these excepted 
Indians is shown by the reports to be 72,110 in all* 

99 
































Land Monopoly. 

The following is a table of the leading alien holders of lands 
in the United States, with amount of holdings in acres : 

An English syndicate, No. 3, in Texas. 3 , 000,000 

The Holland Land Co., New Mexico. 4 , 500,000 

Sir Edw. Reid and a syndicate, Florida. 2 , 000,000 

English syndicate in Mississippi. 1 , 800,000 

Marquis of Tweedale. 1 , 750,000 

Phillips, Marshall & Co., London. 1 , 300,000 

German-American syndicate, London. 750,000 

Bryan H. Evans, of London. 700,000 

Duke of Sutherland. 425,000 

British Land Company in Kansas. 320,000 

Wm. Wharley, M. P., Peterboro, Eng. 310,000 

Missouri Land Co., Edinburgh, Scotland. 300,000 

Robert Tennent, of London. 230,000 

Dundee Land Co., Scotland. 247,000 

Lord Dunmore. . 120,000 

Benjamin Neugas, Liverpool. 100,000 

Lord Houghton in Florida. 60,000 

Lord Dunraven in Colorado. 60,000 

English Land Company in Florida. 50,000 

English Land Company in Arkansas. 50,000 

Albert Peel, M. P., Leicestershire, Eng. 10,000 

Sir J. L. Kay, Yorkshire, Eng. 5,000 

Alexander Grant, of London, in Kans. 35,000 

English syndicate, Wisconsin. 110,000 

M. Ellerhauser, of Halifax, in W. Va. 600,000 

A Scotch syndicate in Florida. 500,000 

A. Boysen, Danish consul in Milwaukee. 50,000 

Missouri Land Company, of Edinburgh. 165,000 

Total. . 20 , 647,000 

To these syndicate holdings should be added the following: 
The Arkansas Valley Company in Colorado,a foreign corporation, 
whose inclosures embrace upward of 1,000,000 acres; the Prairie 
Cattle Company (Scotch) in Colorado, upwards of 1,000,000; 
H. H. Metcalf, River Bend, Col., 200,000; John W. Powers, 
Colorado, 200,000; McDaniel & Davis, Colorado, 75,000; Routch- 
ler & Lamb, Colorado, 40,000; J. W. Frank, Colorado, 40,000; 
Garnett & Langford, Colorado, 30,000; E. C. Tane, Colorado, 
50,000; Leivesy Brothers, Colorado, 150,000; Vrooman & McFife, 
Colorado, 50,000; Beatty Brothers, Colorado, 40,000; Chick, 
Brown & Co., Colorado, 30,000; Reynolds Cattle Company, 
Colorado, 50,000; several other cases in Colorado, embracing 
from 10,000 to 30,000; Coe & Carter, Nebraska, fifty miles of 
fence; J. W. Wilson, Nebraska, forty miles; J. W. Boster, twenty 
miles; William Humphrey ^Nevada, thirty miles; Nelson & Son, 
Nevada, twenty-two miles; Kennebec Ranch, Nebraska, from 
20\000 to 50,000 acres, 100 
































The American Indian, 

The total Indian population of the United States in 1887, 
exclusive of Alaska, was 247,761. 

The Indian reservations in 1886 amounted to 135,978,344 acres, 
or 212,466 square miles approximately. 

The popular idea that there was originally a large Indian 
population in the territory now covered by the United States, 
and that the numbers have decreased with each succeeding gene¬ 
ration, as it came in contact with the fire-arms and fire-water of 
the white man’s civilization, is probably erroneous. There are 
no statistics available, but careful observation and comparison 
has induced such students of Indian history as Mr. J. P. Dunn, 
Jr., to fix the Indian population of our present Territory, at the 
time of European colonization, at 530,000 approximately, and 
Mr. Elbridge S. Brooks, the latest writer upon the Indians, 
materially modifies those figures, expressing the opinion that in 
1600 there were not over half a million of Indians between the 
shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic Ocean, and, in 
fact, that the Indian population of today is substantially the 
same in volume that it was when Columbus discovered America, 
or Leif Ericson either. 

Illiteracy. 


The 1880 census enumerates 36,761,607 persons of ten years of 
age and upward. Of this number 4,923, 451, or 13.4 per cent., are 
returned as unable to read, and 6,239,958, or 17 per cent., as 
unable to write. The following States show over 40 per cent, 
of their population as unable to write: Alabama, 60; Florida, 43; 
Georgia, 50; Louisiana, 49; Mississippi, 50; New Mexico, 65; 
North Carolina, 48; South Carolina, 55; and Virginia, 41, and 
the following States with less than 5 per cent, unable to read: 
Connecticut, 4; Dakota, 3; Illinois, 4; Indiana, 5; Iowa, 2; 
Kansas, 4; Maine, 4; Michigan, 4; Minnesota, 4; Montana, 5; 
Nebraska, New Hampshire, 4; New Jersey, 5; New York, 
4; Ohio, 4; Oregon, 4; Pennsylvania, 55 Utah, 5; Virginia, 5, and 
Wisconsin, 4. 


Average of Import Duties 

Ratio to 
Imports. 
Per Cent. 


United Kingdom. 

France. 6)4 

Germany. 6 

Russia. 18 

Austria. 5 

Italy. 11 

Spain. 24 

Portugal. 26 

Holland. 1 


in Various Countries. 

Ratio t< 
Imports 
Per Cent 

IK 

9 

12 
7K 
28 

15 
13 
44 
37 


Belgium. 

Denmark.. 

Sweden and Norway. 

Europe. 

United States. 

Canada. 

Australia. 

Brazil. 

Argentine Republic. . 


101 



















Organized labor in tlie United States* 

The first strike in this country occurred in New York City in 
1803, when a number of sailors struck for an advance of wages. 

1806. The tailors this year established the first organization in 
the United States, in the present form of a trades union. 

1819. The hatters organized a union of their craft. 

1825-30. The Columbia Charitable Association of Shipwrights 
and Caulkers was organized. 

1825. As early as this year the questions of shorter hours of 
work, better wages and protection of operatives in factories were 
being agitated, and during the years that immediately followed, 
social unions of different crafts were springing up in cities and 
manufacturing centers. 

1828. The Workingmen’s Party, a local political organization 
in New York, Boston, Philadelphia and other cities, appeared. 

1829. At the State election in New York a workingmen’s 
ticket was put in the field, and elected one candidate to the 
Legislature—Ebenezer Ford, of New York. 

1831. First local unions of printers. 

1831. The New England Association of Farmers, Mechanics 
and Workingmen formed. 

1832. Ten-hour movement among the shipwrights and caulk¬ 
ers throughout New England cities was followed by strikes, 
which proved unsuccessful. 

1834. A mechanics’ convention met at Utica, N. Y., and pro¬ 
tested against convict labor. 

1835. From this year onward strikes occurred in the different 
trades from time to time, with varying results. 

1840. About this time many trades were organized, and some 
Were enrolled in Labor Reform associations. 

1840. President Van Buren established the ten-hour system 
for all employes of the Government in the Navy Yards. 

1844-45. First [’effort of co-operation in connection with the 
labor movement originated in Boston. 

1845. The New England Workingmen’s Association was or¬ 
ganized in Boston. 

1845, October 12. The first Industrial Congress of the United 
States convened in New York. 

1847. New Hampshire passed a law making ten hours a legal 
day’s work. 

1850. The labor agitation at this period was principally 
directed to a reduction in hours of work by legal enactment. It 
entered into politics and many candidates were run on that 
issue. 

1850-60. National and international trades unions were organ¬ 
ized, granting charters to local bodies and organizing new 
branches, from Maine to California. 

1861-65. The eight-hour movement obtained great impetus 
during the war. 102 


ms TORT OF ORGANIZED LABOR . 

1866. There was a revival of the labor movement, and many 
new organizations were formed. 

1864. The Cigarmakers’ International Union was formed. 

1866. An eight-hour bill for the benefit of Government em¬ 
ployes was introduced in Congress, and finally became a law in 
1868 by the signature of President Johnson. 

1866. First National Labor Congress met at Baltimore, August 
20. This body met annually in different cities for several years. 

1869. The Knights of Labor were organized in Philadelphia. 

The labor movement from 1870 to the present time has been a 
continuous growth in the number of trades unions and increase 
in their membership, attended by strikes, lock-outs and settle¬ 
ments by arbitration, the agitation for labor legislation and 
efforts at political party organization. Congress created a 
National Bureau of Labor in 1884. 

Most of the trades unions organizations in the United States 
were represented at a convention held at Columbus, O., in 
December, 1886, when a national organization was formed, a 
constitution adopted and the title taken of The American 
Federation of Labor. This body and the Order of Knights of 
Labor of America (which is a secret order) are the two principal 
national labor organizations of the United States. 

The total number of newspapers published in the world at 
present is estimated at about 40,000, distributed as follows; 
United States, 15,000; Germany, 5,500; Great Britain, 5,000, 
France, 4,092; Japan, 2,000; Italy, 1,400; Austria-Hungary, 
1,200; Asia, exclusive of Japan, 1,000; Spain, 850; Russia, 800; 
Australia, 700; Greece, 600; Switzerland, 450; Holland, 300; 
Belgium, 300; all others, 1,000. Of these about half are printed 
in the English language. 

Coal in the United States. —This country has an area 
of between 300,000 and 400,000 square miles of known coal fields, 
from which 1 million tons is mined yearly—enough to belt the 
earth at the equator with a ring five and a half feet thick by five 
and a half feet wide. The quantity “in sight” is estimated to be 
sufficient to supply the whole world for a period of fifteen 
hundred to two thousand years. 

Roman money mentioned in the New Testament, reduced to 


English and American standard : 

£ 

s. 

d. 

far. 

$ cts. 

A mite. 

0 

0 

0 

0.75 

0 00.354 

A farthing, about . 

0 

0 

0 

1.50 

0 00.687 

A penny, or denarius. ... 
A pound, or mina. 

0 

0 

7 

2. 

0 13.75 

3 

2 

6 

0.- 

13 75 . 

103 













PARLIAMENTARY LAW AT A GLANCE. 

Ll*t of Motions Arranged According tothair Purpose and EflFact. 

[Letters refer to rules below.] 

Modifying or amending. 

8. To amend or to substitute, or to divide the question 
To refer to committee. 

7. To commit (or recommit) - 
Deferring A ct ion. 

6. To postpone to a fixed time - 

4. To lay on the table ------ 

Suppressing or extending debate. 

5. For the previous question - 
To limit, or close, debate - 
To extend limits of debate - 

Suppressing the question. 

Objection to consideration of question 

9. To postpone indefinitely - - - - - 

4. To lay upon the table ------ 

To bring up a question the second time 


To reconsider 



- 

- 

K 

- 

- 

- 

D 




C 

- 

A 

E 

G 

. 

A 

E 

M 

_ 

• 

A 

M 

- 

- 

- 

A 

A 

H 

M 

N 


. 

D 

E 

- 

A 

E 

G 

D 

E 

F 

I 

A 

E 

F 

I 

A 

E 

H 

N 

_ 

_ 

- 

M 




M 

A 

E 

F 

M 

- 

_ 

A 

E 

. 

A 

E 

G 

- 

- 

- 

A 

1 


_ 

A 

A 

E 

H 

L 

- 

E 

H 

L 

- 

- 

A 

E 

- 

- 

A 

E 

- 

A 

E 

F 


«. 

. 

B 


debatable question - 
undebatable question 
Concerning Orders , Rules, etc. 

3. For the orders of the day ----- 

To make subject a special order - - - - 

To amend the rules ------ 

To suspend the rules ------ 

To take up a question out of its proper order 
To take from the table ------ 

Questions touching priority of business 
Questions of privilege. 

Asking- leave to continue speaking after indecorum 
Appeal from chair’s decision touching indecorum 
Appeal from chair’s decision generally 
Question upon reading of papers - - - - 

Withdrawal of a motion - 
Closing a meeting. 

2. To adjourn (in committees, to rise), or to take a ) 
recess, without limitation - - - - ( 

1. To fix the time to which to adjourn - - - 

Order of Precedence.— The motions above numbered 1 to 9 take pre¬ 
cedence over all others in the order given, and any one of them, except to amend 
or substitute, is in order -while a motion of a lower rank is pending. 

Rule A. Undebatable, but remarks may be tacitly allowed. 

Rule B. Undebatable if another question is before the assembly. 

Rule C. Limited debate allowed on propriety of postponement only. 

Rule D. Opens the main question to debate. Motions not so marked do 
not allow of reference to main question. 

Rule E. Cannot be amended. Motion to adjourn can be amended when 
there is no other business before the house. 

Rule F. Cannot be reconsidered. 

Rule G. An affirmative vote cannot be reconsidered. 

Rule H. In order when another has the floor. 

Rule I. A motion to reconsider may be moved and entered when another 
has the floor, but the business then before the house may not 
be set aside. This motion can only be entertained when made 
by one who voted originally with the prevailing side. When 
called up it takes precedence of all others which may come up, 
excepting only motions relating to adjournment. 

Rule K. A motion to amend an amendment cannot be amended. 

104 




PARLIAMENTARY LA IK 

Rule L. When an appeal from the chair’s decision results in a tie-vote, the 
chair is sustained. 

Rule M. Requires a two-thirds vote unless special rules have been enacted. 
Rule N. Does not require to be seconded. 

GENERAL RULES. 

No motion is open for discussion until it has been stated by the chair. 
The maker of a motion cannot modify it or withdraw it after it has 
been stated by the chair, except by general consent. 

Only one reconsideration of a question is permitted. 

A motion to adjourn, to lay on the table, or to take from the table, can¬ 
not be renewed unless some other motion has been made in the interval. 

On motion to strike out the words, “Shall the words stand part of the 
motion?” unless a majority sustains the words, they are struck out. 

On motion for previous question, the form to be observed is, “Shall the 
main question be now put?” This, if carried, ends debate. 

On an appeal from the chair’s decision, “Shall the decision be sustained 
as the ruling of the house?” The chair is generally sustained. 

On motion for orders of the day, “Will the house now proceed to the 
orders of the day?” This, if carried, supersedes intervening motions. 

When an objection is raised to consideiing questions, “Shall the ques¬ 
tion be considered?” objections may be made by any member before debate 
has commenced, but not subsequently. 


Letter Combinations. —When King Stanislaus of Poland, 

then a young man, came back from a journey, the whole Lescinskian House 
gathered together at Lissa to receive him. The schoolmaster, Jablowsky, prepared 
a festival in commemoration of the event, and had it end with a ballet performed by 
thirteen students, dressed as cavaliers. Each had a shield, upon which one of the 
letters of the words “ Domus Lescinia ” (The Lescinskian House) was written in 
gold. After the first dance, they stood in such a manner that their shields read 
“ Domus Lescinia ;” after the second dance, they changed order, making it read, 
“ Adts incohimis” (Unharmed art thou here); after the third, “ Mane sidus loci” 
(Continue the star of this place); after the fourth, ‘‘ Sis columna Dei” (Be a pillar 
of God); and finally, “// scande solium !” (Go! ascend the throne). Indeed, 
these two words allow of 1,556,755,200 transpositions; yet that four of them convey 
independent and appropriate meanings is certainly very curious. 

To Tell Pure Water.—T he color, odor, taste and purity 
of water can be ascertained as follows: Fill a large bottle made of colorless glass 
with water; look through the water at some black object. Pour out some of the 
water and leave the bottle half full; cork the bottle and place it for a few hours in a 
warm place; shake up the water, remove the cork, and critically smell the air con¬ 
tained in the bottle. If it has any smell, particularly if the odor is repulsive, the 
water should not be used for domestic purposes. By heating the water an odor is 
evolved that would not otherwise appear. Water fresh from the well is usually 
tasteless, even if it contains a large amount of putrescible organic matter. All water 
for domestic purposes should be perfectly tasteless, and remain so even after it has 
been warmed, since warming often develops a taste in water which is tasteless when 
cold. 

Hand Grenades. —Take chloride of calcium, crude, 20 parts ; 

common salt, 5 parts ; and water, 75 parts. Mix and put in thin bottles. Injcase of 
fire, a bottle so thrown that it will break in or very near the fire will put it out. This 
mixture is better and cheaper than many of the high-priced grenades sold for the 
purpose of fire protection. 

How to Get Rid of Rats.—G et a piece of lead pipe and use 

it as a funnel to introduce about 1 ounces of sulphide of potassium into any outside 
holes tenanted by rats, not to be used in dwellings. To get rid of mice use tartar 
emetic mingled with any favorite food; they will eat, sicken and take their leave. 

105 



Great Fires and Conflagrations. 

London, Sept. 2-6, 1666.—Eighty-nine churches, many public 

buildings and 13,200 houses destroyed; 400 streets laid waste; 200,000 persons home¬ 
less. The ruins covered 436 acres. 

New York, Dec. 16, 1835.—600 buildings; loss, $20,000,000. 

Sept. 6 , 1839 .—$ 10 , 000,000 worth of property. 

Pittsburgh, April 10, 1845.—1,000 buildings; loss, $6,000,000. 
Philadelphia, July 9, 1850.—350 buildings; loss, $1,500,000525 
persons killed; 9 drowned; 120 wounded. 

St. Louis, May 4, 1S51.—Large portion of the city burned; 

loss, $ 15 , 000 , 000 . 

San Francisco, May 3-5, 1S51.—2,500 buildings; loss, $3,500,- 

000 ; many lives lost. June 22 , 1851.—500 buildings; loss, $ 3 , 000 , 000 . 

Santiago (Spain), Dec. 8, 1863.—A fire in the church of 
the Campania, beginning amid combustible ornaments; 2,000 persons killed, 
mostly women. 

Charleston, S. C., Feb. 17, 1865.—Almost totally destroyed, 

with large quantities of naval and military stores. 

Richmond, Va., April 2 and 3, 1865.—In great part destroyed 
by fire at time of Confederate evacuation. 

Portland, Me., July 4, 1866.—Almost entirely destroyed; loss, 

$ 15 , 000 , 000 . 

Chicago, Oct. 8 and 9, 1871.—3 % square miles laid waste; 

17,450 buildings destroyed; 200 persons killed; 98,500 made homeless. July 14, 
1874 .—Another great fire; loss, $ 4 , 000 , 000 . 

Great forest fires in Michigan and Wisconsin, October 8-14, 
1871 .— 2,000 lives lost. 

Boston, Nov. 9-11, 1872.—800 buildings; loss, $73,000,000; 15 
killed. 

Fall River, Mass., Sept. 19, 1874.—Great factory fires; 60 per¬ 
sons killed. 

St. John, N. B., June 21, 1876.—Loss, $12,500,000. 

Brooklyn Theater burned, Dec. 5, 1876.—300 lives lost. 

Seattle and Spokane, Wash., 1889.—About $10,000,000 each. 

Great Floods and Inundations. 

An inundation in Cheshire, England, A.D. 353.—3,000 per¬ 
sons perished. 

Glasgow, A.D. 758.—More than 400 families drowned. 

Dort, April 17, 1421.—72 villages submerged; 100,000 people 

drowned. 

Overflow of the Severn, A.D. 1483, lasting ten days.—Men, 
women and children carried away in their beds, and the waters covered the tops of 
many mountains. 

General inundation in Holland, A.D. 1530.—By failure of dikes; 

400,000 said to have been drowned. 

At Catalonia, A.D. 1617.—50,000 drowned. 

Johnstown, Pa., May 31, 1880.—By the bursting of a huge 
reservoir on the mountains, the town was almost entirely destroyed, and about 6,000 
persons perished. The water in its passage to Johnstown descended about 250 feet. 
The theoretical velocity due to this descent would be about 127 feet per second or be¬ 
tween 86 and 87 miles an hour. According to the best accounts from 15 to 17 minutes 
were occupied in the passage to Johnstown, a distance of about twelve miles. 
Thus the average velocity could not have been far short of 50 miles an hour. The 
impetus of such a mass of water was irresistible. As the flood burst through the 
dam it cut trees away as if they were stalks of mullein. 

106 


INTERESTING FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


A hawk flics 150 miles per hour; an eider duck. 90 miles; a 
pigeon, 40 miles. 

A man’s working life is divided into four decades; 20 to 30, 
bronze; 30 to 40, silver; 40 to 50, gold; 50 to 60, iron. Intellect 
and judgment are strongest between 40 and 50. 

Hair which is lightest in color is also lightest in weight. 
Light or blonde hair is generally the most luxuriant, and it has 
been calculated that the average number of hairs of this color on 
an average person’s head is 140,000; while the number of brown 
hairs is 110,000, and black only 103,000. 

Goldsmith received $300 for the “Vicar of Wakefield;” Moore, 
$15,500 for “Lalla Rookh;” Victor Hugo, $12,000 for “Hernani;” 
Chateaubriand, $110,000 for his works; Lamartine, $16,000 for 
“Travels in Palestine;” Disraeli, $50,000 for “Endymion;” 
Anthony Trollope, $315,000 for forty-five novels; Lingard, $21,- 
500 for his “History of England;” Mrs. Grant received over 
$600,000 as royalty from the sale of “The Personal Memoirs of 
U. S. Grant.” 

One woman in 20, one man in 30 is barren—about 4 per cent. 
It is found that one marriage in 20 is barren—5 per cent. Among 
the nobility of Great Britain, 21 per cent, have no children, owing 
partly to intermarriage of cousins, no less than 4^ per cent, 
being married to cousins. 

The capital employed in banking in the principal countries is 
as follows: Great Britain, $4,020,000,000; United States, $2,655,- 
000,000; Germany, $1,425,000,000; France, $1,025,000,000; Austria, 
$830,000,000; Russia, $775,000,000; Italy, $455,000,000; Australia, 
$425,000,000; Canada, $175,000,000. 

The largest bells are the following, and their weight is given 
in tons: Moscow, 216; Burmah, 117; Pekin, 53; Novgorod, 31; 
Notre Dame, 18; Rouen, 18; Olmutz, 18; Vienna, 18; St. Paul’s, 
16; Westminster, 14; Montreal, 12; Cologne, 11; Oxford, 8; St. 
Peter’s, 8. 

Bell-metal should have 77 parts copper, and 23 tin. 

American life average for professions (Boston): Store¬ 
keepers, 41.8 years; teamsters, 43.6 years; laborers, 44.6 years; 
seamen, 46.1 years; mechanics, 47.3 years; merchants, 48.4years; 
lawyers, 52.6 years; farmers, 64.2 years. 

In the small-pox epidemic of 1881, in England, the returns 
showed 4,478 deaths per million inhabitants—98 vaccinated to 
4,380 unvaccinated, or in the proportion of 44 to 1. In the epi¬ 
demic at Leipsic in 1871, the death rate was 12,700 per million, 
70 per cent, of whom were unvaccinated. These figures are by 
Dr. Mulhall. In Boston the proportion was 15 to 50, and in 
Philadelphia, 17 to 64. 


107 



FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


During the Franco-German war the Germans lost only 263 
men from this disease, the French 23,499, the fonder having been 
revaccinated in barracks. In the war in Paraguay, the Bra¬ 
zilians lost 43,000 men from malignant or black small-pox, that 
is, 35 per cent, of their army, nine cases in ten proving fatal. 

A camel has twice the carrying power of an ox; with an 
ordinary load of 400 lbs. he can travel 12 to 14 days without 
water, going 40 miles a day. Camels are fit to work at 5 years 
old, but their strength begins to decline at 25, although they live 
usually till 40. 

The checks paid in New York and London in one month 
aggregate $6,350,000,000, which is greatly in excess of the value 
of all the gold and silver coin in existence. 

Pounds of water evaporated by 1 lb. of fuel as follows: 
Straw, 1.9; wood, 3.1; peat, 3.8; coke or charcoal, 6.4; coal, 7.9; 
petroleum, 14.6. 

In 1877 the newspaper Nationale of Paris had ten pigeons 
which carried dispatches daily between Versailles and Paris in 
fifteen to twenty minutes. In November, 1882, some pigeons, in 
face of a strong wind, made the distance of 160 miles, from Can¬ 
ton Vaud to Paris, in 6^0 hours, or 25 miles per hour. 

The average elevation of continents above sea level is: Europe, 
670 feet; Asia, 1,140 feet; North America, 1,150 feet; South 
America, 1,100 feet. 

In 1684, four men were taken alive out of a mine in England, 
after 24 days without food. In 1880, Dr. Tanner, in New York, 
lived on water for 40 days, losing 36 lbs. in weight. 

The fair of Nijni-Novgorod is the greatest in the world, the 
value of goods sold being as follows: 1841, $35,000,000; 1857, 
$60,000,000; 1876, $140,000,000; the attendance in the last named 
year including 150,000 merchants from all parts of the world. 
Tn that of Leipsic the annual average of sales is $20,000,000, 
comprising 20,000 tons of merchandise, of which two-fifths is 
books. 

The average annual production of flax is as follows: Russia, 
270,000 tons; Austria, 53,000; Germany, 48,000; Belgium and 
Holland, 38,000; France, 37,000; United Kingdom, 25,000; Italy, 
23,000; United States, 12,000; Scandinavia, 4,000—total, 510,000 
tons. 

A body weighing 140 lbs. produces 3 lbs. ashes; time for burn- 
ing, 55 minutes. 

The six largest diamonds in the world weigh, respectively, as 
follows: Kohinoor, 103 carats; Star of Brazil, 125 carats; Regent 
of France, 136 carats; Austrian Kaiser, 139 carats; Russian Czar, 
193 carats; Rajah of Borneo, 367 carats. The value of the above 
is not regulated by size, nor easy to estimate, but none of them 
is worth less than $500,000. jqq 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 

According to Orfila, the proportion of nicotine in Havana 
tobacco is 2 per cent.; in French, 6 per cent., and in Virginia 
tobacco, 7 per cent. That in Brazilian is still higher. 

There were 2,180 lepers in Norway in 1883, according to Mul- 
hall. The numbers in Spain and Italy are considerable. In the 
Sandwich Islands the disease is so prevalent that the island of 
Molokai is set apart for lepers, who are under the direction of a 
French Jesuit priest. The death of Father Damien, in 1889, 
called attention to the noblest instance of self-sacrifice recorded 
in the nineteenth century. His place is now filled by a younger 
member of his order, who voluntarily sacrifices his health and 
life to aid the outcasts. In the Seychelles Islands leprosy is also 
common. 

One horse-power will raise 1 6*4 tons per minute a height of 12 
inches, working S hours a day. This is about 9,900 foot-tons daily, 
or 12 times a man’s work. 

The horse-power of Niagara is 3^ million nominal, equal to 
10 million horses effective. 

Good clear ice two inches thick will bear men to walk on; 
four inches thick will bear horses and riders; six inches thick 
will bear horses and teams with moderate loads. 

The percentage of illegitimate births for various countries, as 
stated by Mulhall, is as follows: Austria, 12.9; Denmark, 11.2; 
Sweden, 10.2; Scotland, 8.9; Norway, 8.05; Germany, 8.04; 
France, 7.02; Belgium, 7.0; United States, 7.0; Italy, 6.8; Spain 
and Portugal, 5.5; Canada, 5.0; Switzerland, 4.6; Holland, 3.5; 
Russia, 3.1; Ireland, 2.3; Greece, 1.6. 

India Rubber is obtained mostly from the Seringueros of the 
Amazon, who sell it for about 12 cents a pound to the merchants 
of Para, but its value on reaching England or the United States 
is over 50 cents a pound. The best rubber forests in Brazil will 
ultimately be exhausted, owing to the reckless mode followed by 
the Seringueros, or tappers. The ordinary product of a tapper’s 
work is from 10 to 16 lbs. daily. There are 120 india rubber 
manufacturers in the United States, employing 15,000 operatives, 
who produce 280,000 tons of goods, valued at $260,000,000 per 
annum. 

One pair of rabbits can become multiplied in four years into 
1,250,000. They were introduced in Australia a few years ago, 
and now that colony ships 6,000,000 rabbit skins yearly to Eng¬ 
land. 

The largest of the Pyramids, that of Cheops, is composed of 
four million tons of stone, and occupied 100,000 men during 20 
years, equal to an outlay of $200,000,000. It would now cost $20,- 
000,000 at a contract price of 36 cents per cubic foot. 

One tug on the Mississippi can take, in six days, from St. 

109 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS . 

Louis to New Orleans, barges carrying 10,000 tons of grain, 
which would require 70 railway trains of fifteen cars each. Tugs 
in the Suez Canal tow a vessel from sea to sea in 44 hours. 

Comparative Scale of Strength. —Ordinary man, 100; 
Byron’s Gladiator, 173; Farnese Hercules, 362; Horse, 750. 

A man will die for want of air in five minutes; for want of 
sleep, in ten days; for want of water, in a week; for want of 
food, at varying intervals, dependent on various circum¬ 
stances. 

The average of human life is 33 years. One child out of every 
four dies before the age of 7 years, and only one-half of the 
world’s population reach the age of 17* One out of 10,000 
reaches 100 years. The average number of births per day is 
about 120,000, exceeding the deaths by about 15 per minute. 
There have been many alleged cases of longevity in all ages, but 
only a few are authentic. 

The ratio of sickness rises and falls regularly with death rate 
in all countries, as shown by Dr. Farr and Mr. Edmonds at the 
London Congress of i860, when the following rule was estab¬ 
lished: Of 1,000 persons, aged 30, it is probable 10 will die in 
the year, in which case there will be 20 of that age sick through¬ 
out the year, and 10 invalids. Of 1,000 persons, aged 75, it is 
probable that 100 will die in the year, in which case the sick and 
invalids of that age will be 300 throughout the year. For every 
100 deaths let there be hospital beds for 200 sick, and infirmaries 
for 100 invalids. 

The estimated number of religious denominations among 
English-speaking communities throughout the world is as fol¬ 
lows: Episcopalians, 21,100,000; Methodists of all descriptions, 
15,800,000; Roman Catholics, 14,340,000; Presbyterians of all 
descriptions, 10,500,000; Baptists of all descriptions, 8,160,000; 
Congregationalists, 6,000,000; Unitarians, 1,000,000; Free 
Thought, 1,100,000; minor religious sects, 2,000,000; of no par¬ 
ticular religion, 20,000,000. Total English speaking population, 
100,000,000. 

The various nations of Europe are represented in the list of 
Popes as follows: English, 1; Dutch, 1; Swiss, 1; Portuguese, 1; 
Afiican, 2; Austrian, 2; Spanish, 5; German,6; Syrian,8; Greek, 
14; French, 15; Italian, 197. Eleven Popes reigned over 20 
years; 69, from 10 to 20; 57, from 5 to 10; and the reign of 116 
was less than 5 years. The reign of Pius IX. was the longest 
of all, the only one exceeding 25 j r ears. Pope Leo XIII. is the 
258th Pontiff. The full number of the Sacred College is 70, 
namely: Cardinal Bishops, 6; Cardinal Priests, 50; Cardinal 
Deacons, 14. At present there are 62 Cardinals. The Roman 
Catholic hierarchy throughout the world, according to official 

1X0 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STA T IS TICS. 


returns published at Rome in 1884, consisted of 11 Patriarchs, 
and I»I53 Archbishops and Bishops. Including 12 coadjutor or 
auxiliary bishops, the number of Roman Catholic archbishops 
and bishops now holding office in the British Empire is 134. The 
numbers of the clergy are approximate only. 

Consumption. —Of the total number of deaths the percent¬ 
age traceable to consumption in the several States and Territories 
is as follows: Alabama, 9.6; Arizona, 6.1; Arkansas, 6.4; Cali¬ 
fornia, 15.6; Colorado, 8.2; Connecticut, 15.1; Dakota, 8.8; 
Delaware, 16.1; District of Columbia, 18.9; Florida, 8.3; Georgia, 
7.9; Idaho, 6.8; Illinois, 10.3, Indiana, 12.6; Iowa, 9.9; Kansas, 7.3; 
Kentucky, 15.7; Louisiana, 10.4; Maine, 19.2; Maryland, 14.0; 
Massachusetts, 15.7; Michigan, 13.2; Minnesota, 9.3; Mississippi, 
8.8; Missouri, 9.8; Montana, 5.6; Nebraska, 8.8; Nevada, 6.3; 
New Hampshire, 5.6; New Jersey, 8.9; New Mexico, 2.4; New 
York, 8.1; North Carolina, 9.5; Ohio, 13.8; Oregon, 12.1; Penn¬ 
sylvania, 12.6; Rhode Island, 14.6; South Carolina,9.8; Tennes¬ 
see, 14.5; Texas, 6.5; Utah, 2.8; Vermont, 16.1; Virginia, 12.2; 
Washington, 13.2; West Virginia, 13.0; Wisconsin, 10.4; Wyom¬ 
ing, 2.6; Average, 12.0. 

Capacity of the largest public buildings in the world: Coli¬ 
seum, Rome, 87,000; St. Peter’s, Rome, 54,000; Theater of 
Pompey, Rome, 40,000; Cathedral, Milan, 37,000; St. Paul’s, 
Rome, 32,000; St. Paul’s, London, 31,000; St. Petronia, Bologna, 
26,000; Cathedral, Florence, 24,300; Cathedral, Antwerp, 24,000; 
St. John Lateran, Rome, 23,000; St. Sophia’s, Constantinople, 
23,000; Notre Dame, Paris, 21,500; Theater of Marcellus, Rome, 
20,000; Cathedral, Pisa, 13,000; St. Stephen’s, Vienna, 12,400; St. 
Dominic’s, Bologna, 12,000; St. Peter’s, Bologna, 11,400; Cathe¬ 
dral, Vienna, 11,000; Gilmore’s Garden, New York, 8,443; 
La Scala, Milan, 8,000; Auditorium, Chicago, 7,000; Mormon 
Temple, Sait Lake City, 8,000; St. Mark’s, Venice, 7,500; Spur¬ 
geon’s Tabernacle, London, 6,000; Bolshoi Theater, St. Peters¬ 
burg, 5,000; Tabernacle (Talmage’s), Brooklyn, 5,000; Music 
Hall, Cincinnati, 4,824. 

There are 3,000,000 opium smokers in China. A paper read 
before the New York Medical Society by Dr. F. N. Hammond 
presents some important facts. In 1840 about 20,000 pounds of 
opium were consumed in the United States; in 1880, 533,450 
pounds. In 1868 there were about 90,000 habitual opium-eaters 
in the country, now they number over 500,000. More women 
than men are addicted to the use of the drug. The vice is one so 
easily contracted, so easily practiced in private, and so difficult 
of detection, that it presents peculiar temptations and is very in- 
siduous. The relief from pain that it gives and the peculiar ex¬ 
altation of spirits easily lead the victim to believe that the use 

in 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


of it is beneficial. Opium and chloral are today the most dead¬ 
ly foes of women. Dr. Hammond is the better qualified to 
speak on this subject from having once been a consumer of 
opium himself. To break off from the habit, he says, the opium- 
sater must reduce the quantity of his daily dose, using at the 
same time other stimulants, and gradually eliminate the deadly 
drug entirely. 

The degrees of alcohol in wines and liquors are: Beer, 4.0; 
porter, 4.5; ale, 7.4; cider, 8.6; Moselle, 9.6; Tokay, 10.2; Rhine, 
11.0; Orange, 11.2; Bordeaux, 11.5; hock, 11.6; gooseberry, 11.8, 
Champagne, 12.2; claret, 13.3; Burgundy, 13.6; Malaga, 17.3; 
Lisbon, 18.5; Canary, 18.8; sherry, 19.0; Vermouth, 19.0; 
Cape, i9.2;Malmsey, 19.7; Marsala, 20.2; Madeira, 21.0; port, 
23.2; Curaijoa, 27.0; aniseed, 33.0; Maraschino, 34.0; Chartreuse, 
43.0; gin, 51.6; brandy, 53.4; rum, 53.7; Irish whisky, 53.9; 
Scotch, 54.3. 

Spirits are said to be “proof’ when they contain 57 per cent. 
The maximum amount of alcohol, says Parkes, that a man 
can take daily without injury to his health is that contained in 2 
oz. brandy, % pt. of sherry, pt. of claret, or 1 pt. of beer. 

The measurement of that part of the skull which holds the 
brain is stated in cubic inches thus: Anglo-Saxon, 105; German, 
105; Negro, 96; Ancient Egyptian, 93; Hottentot, 58; Australian 
native, 58. In all races the male brain is about ten per cent, 
heavier than the female. The highest class of apes has only 16 
oz. of brain. A man’s brain, it is estimated, consists of 300,000- 
000 nerve cells, of which over 3,000 are disintegrated and destroyed 
every minute. Every one, therefore, has a new brain once in 
sixty days. But excessive labor, or the lack of sleep, prevents 
the repair of the tissues, and the brain gradually wastes away. 
Diversity of occupation, by calling upon different portions of 
the mind or body, successfully affords, in some measure, the re¬ 
quisite repose to each. But in this age of overwork there is no 
safety except in that perfect rest which is the only natural resto¬ 
rative of exhausted power. It has been noticed by observant 
physicians in their European travels that the German people, 
who, as a rule, have little ambition and no hope to rise above 
their inherited station, are peculiarly free from nervous diseases; 
but in America, where the struggle for advancement is sharp and 
incessant, and there is nothing that will stop an American but 
death, the period of life is usually shortened five, ten or twenty 
years by the effects of nervous exhaustion. After the age of 50 
the brain loses an ounce every ten years. Cuvier’s weighed 64, 
Byron’s 79, and Cromwell’s 90 ounces, but the last was diseased. 
Post-mortem examinations in France give an average of 55 to 60 
Ounces for the brains of the worst class of criminals. 

112 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


In the cholera visitation of 1866, the proportion of deaths per 
10,000 inhabitants in the principal cities of Europe was as fol¬ 
lows: London, 18; Dublin, 41; Vienna, 51; Marseilles, 64; Paris, 
66; Berlin, 83; Naples, 89; St. Petersburg, 98; Madrid, 102; 
Brussels, 184; Palermo, 197; Constantinople, 738. 

There were 48,930 blind people in the United States in 1880, 
and 33,880 deaf mutes. 

It is estimated that the number of insane persons in the 
United States is 168,900. Causes of Insanity. —Hereditary, 24 
per cent.; drink, 14 per cent.; business, 12 per cent.; loss or 
friends, 11 per cent.; sickness, 10 per cent.; various, 29 per cent. 
This result is the medium average arrived at by Mulhall on 
comparing the returns for the United States, Engand, France 
and Denmark. 

No fewer than 1,326 editions of the Bible were published in 
the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centu¬ 
ries it was translated and published in many languages by the 
polyglot press of Propaganda Fide at Rome. In the nineteenth 
century the English and American societies have printed, in the 
Protestant version, 124,000,000 copies of the Bible or of the New 
Testament, viz: British, 74,000,000; American, 32,000,000; other 
societies, 15,000,000 copies. 

The King James version of the Bible contains 3,566,480 let¬ 
ters, 773,746 words, 31,173 verses, 1,189 chapters, and 66 books. 
The word and occurs 46,277 times. The word Lord occurs 
1,855 times. The word Reverend occurs but once, which is in 
the 9th verse of the mth Psalm. The middle verse is the 8th 
verse of the 118th Psalm. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of 
Ezra contains all the letters of the alphabet except the letter J. 
The 19th chapter of II Kings and the 37th chapter of Isaiah are 
alike. The longest verse is the 9th verse of the 8th chapter of 
Esther. The shortest verse is the 35th verse of the nth chapter 
of St. John. There are no words or names of more than six syl¬ 
lables. 


Some of Nature’s Wonders. 

The human body has 240 bones. 

The musical scale was invented in 1022. 

Man’s heart beats 92,160 times in a day. 

A salmon has been known to produce 10,000,000 eggs. Some 
female spiders produce 2,000 eggs. A queen bee produces 100,- 
000 eggs in a season. 

There are 9,000 cells in a square foot of honeycomb. 

It requires 2,300 silk worms to produce one pound of silk. 

It would take 27,600 spiders to produce one pound of web. 

113 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


B LACKSTONE defines lavj as the rules of human action 
or conduct, but what is commonly understood by the 
term is the civil or municipal regulations of a nation as 
applied to a particular country. The forms of law which gov¬ 
ern civil contracts and business intercourse are distinguished as 
statute and common. Statute law is the written law of the land, 
as enacted by State or national legislative bodies. The com¬ 
mon law is grounded on the general customs of England, and 
includes the law of nature, the law of God, the principles and 
maxims of the law and the decisions of the superior courts. It 
overrides both the canon and the civil law where they go be¬ 
yond or are inconsistent with it. 

To the man involved in litigation the best advice is to go to 
the best lawyer he can find. But an ounce of prevention is 
worth a pound of cure, and the purpose of the following pages is 
to furnish the ounce of prevention. Knowledge is power in 
nothing so much as in business law, especially since the law pre¬ 
sumes that no man is ignorant of the law. 


Business Law in Brief. 

Ignorance of the law excuses no one. 

It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. 

The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 

An agreement without consideration is void. 

Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in law. 

A receipt for money paid is not legally conclusive. 

The act of one partner binds all the others. 

The seal of a party to a written contract imports consider¬ 
ation. 

A contract made with a minor cannot be enforced against 
him. A note made by a minor is voidable. 

A contract made with a lunatic is void. 

A contract made on a Sunday is void. 

Principals are liable for the acts of their agents. 

Agents are liable to their principals for errors. 

Each individual in a partnership is liable for the whole amount 
of the debts of the firm. 

A note which does not state on its face that it bears interest, 
will bear interest only after due. 

A lease of land for a longer term than one year is void unless 
in writing. 

An indorser of a note is exempt from liability if notice of its 
dishonor is not mailed or served within twenty-four hours of its 
non-payment. 

In case of the death of the principal maker of a note the holder 

114 




LEGAL ADVICE. 


is not required to notify a surety that the note is not paid, before 
the settlement of the maker’s estate. 

Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an intoxicated person, 
are not collectible. 

If no time of payment is specified in a note it is payable on 
demand. 

An indorser can avoid liability by writing “without recourse” 
beneath his signature. 

A check indorsed by the payee is evidence of payment in the 
drawer’s hands. 

An outlawed debt is revived should the debtor make a partial 
payment. 

Want of consideration—a common defense interposed to the 
paymtnt of negotiable paper—is a good defense between the 
Qriginal parties to the paper ; but after it has been transferred 
before maturity to an innocent holder for value it is not a de¬ 
fense. 

Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or indorsed in blank, 
which has been stolen or lost, cannot be collected by the thief 
or finder, but a holder who receives it in good faith before ma¬ 
turity, for value, can hold it against the owner’s claims at the 
time it was lost. 

Sometimes the holder of paper has the right to demand pay¬ 
ment before maturity ; for instance, when a draft has been pro¬ 
tested for non-acceptance and the proper notices served, the 
holder may at once proceed against the drawer and indorsers. 

If a note or draft is to be paid in the State where it is made, 
the contract will be governed by the laws of that State. When 
negotiable paper is payable in a State other than that in which 
it is made, the laws of that State will govern it. Marriage con¬ 
tracts, if valid where they are made, are valid everywhere. 
Contracts relating to personal property are governed by the laws 
of the place where made, except those relating to real estate, 
which are governed by the laws of the place where the land is 
situated. 

If negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as security for thg 
payment of a loan or debt, falls due, and the bank fails to de¬ 
mand payment and have it protested when dishonored, the banlt 
•is liable to the owner for the full amount of the paper. 


Agreements and Contracts. 

A contract or agreement is where a promise is made on ona 
side and assented to on the other, or where two or more per¬ 
sons enter into engagement with each other by a promise on 
either side. In a written contract assent is proved by the signa¬ 
ture or mark. In verbal agreements it may be given by a word 

115 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


or a nod, by shaking of hands, or by a sign. The old saw, 
“Silence gives consent,” is often upheld in law. 

The conditions of a contract, as applying to individuals, are: 
i. Age ; 2. Rationality ; and 3, as to Corporations, the posses¬ 
sion of general or special statutory powers. 

Persons under age are incompetent to make contracts, except 
under certain limitations. Generally such persons are incapa¬ 
ble of making binding contracts. 

As to rationality, the general principle of law is that all 
persons not rendered incompetent by personal disability, or by 
considerations of public policy, are capable of making a contract. 

Corporations have powers to make contracts strictly within the 
limits prescribed by their charters, or by special or general statute. 

The first step toward a contract is the proposition or offer, 
which may be withdrawn at any time before it is agreed to, 
When the proposition is verbal, and no time is specified, it is not 
binding unless accepted at once. To give one the option or re¬ 
fusal of property at a specified price, is simply to give him a cer¬ 
tain time to make up his mind whether he will buy the property 
or not. To make the option binding he must accept within the 
time named. The party giving the option has the right to with¬ 
draw it, and sell the property to another, at any time previous to 
its aeceptance, if the offer is gratuitous, and there is no consid¬ 
eration to support it. 

If a letter of acceptance is mailed, and immediately after a 
letter withdrawing the offer is received, the contract is binding. 
An acceptance takes effect from the time it is mailed, not from 
the time it is received ; it must, however, be in accordance with 
the original proposition, for any new matter introduced would 
constitute a new offer. When the offer is accepted, either ver¬ 
bally or in writing, it is an express assent, and is binding. 

A contract made under a mistake of law is not void. Every¬ 
body is presumed to know the law. This, however, applies only 
tc contracts permitted by law and clear of fraud. 

A refusal of an offer cannot be retracted without the consent 
of the second party. Once a proposition is refused, the matter 
is ended. And no one has the right to accept an offer except 
the person to whom it was made. 

The consideration is the reason or thing for which the parties 
bind themselves in the contract, and it is either a benefit to the 
promisor or an injury to the oth^r party. Considerations are 
technically divided into valuable and good , and it sometimes 
happens that the consideration need not be expressed, but is im¬ 
plied. A valuable consideration is either money or property or 
service to be given, or some injury to be endured. A promise 
to marry is considered a valuable consideration. A good con- 

116 


LEGAL ADVICE. 


sideration means that the contract is entered into because of corn 
sanguinity or affection, which will support the contract when 
executed, but will not support an action to enforce an executory 
contract. Whether a consideration is sufficient or not is tested 
by its being a benefit to the promisor or an injury to the other 
party. If it has a legal value, it makes no difference how small 
that value may be. The promisor need not always be benefited, 
as, for instance, the indorser of a note, who is liable although he 
gets no benefit. But if a person promise to do something him 
self for which no consideration is to be received, there is no 
cause of action for breach of the contract, 

There are several causes which void contracts, first among 
which is fraud. Fraud is defined to be “every kind of artifice 
employed by one person for the purpose of willfully deceiving 
another to his injury.” No fraudulent contract will stand in law 
or in equity. The party upon whom the fraud has been prac¬ 
ticed must void the contract as soon as he discovers the fraud, 
for if he goes on after having knowledge of the fraud he cannot 
afterwards avoid it. But the one who perpetrates the fraud 
cannot plead that ground for voiding it. Contracts in restraint 
of trade are void, as also are contracts in opposition to public 
policy, impeding the course of justice, in restraint of marriage 
contrary to the insolvent acts, or for immoral purposes. Anj 
violation of the essential requisites of a contract, or the omissior. 
of an essential requisite, will void it. 

DON’T enter into an agreement on a Sunday unless it is rati 
fied on a week day. 

DON’T make a contract with a person of unsound mind o i 
under the influence of liquor, or otherwise under restraint of 
liberty, mind or body. Use caution in making contracts with 
an illiterate, blind or deaf and dumb person, and see to it that 
witnesses are present. 

DON’T put a forced construction on a contract—the intent of 
the parties is a contract. 

DON’T suppose that you can withdraw a proposition made in 
writing and sent by mail after the party to whom it was made 
has mailed an unconditional acceptance. 

DON’T suppose that a conditional acceptance of a proposition 
is binding on the party making the proposition. 

DON’T forget that the courts will construe a contract ac¬ 
cording to the law prevailing where it was made. 

DON’T forget that the law says, “no consideration, no con¬ 
tract,” and that the courts will not enforce a contract which is 
too severe in its provisions. 

DON’T sign an agreement unless you have carefully weighed 
its provisions, which should all be fixed and certain. 

117 


Notes and Negotiable Paper. 

The superstructure of business as it exists to-day rests on the 
broad foundation of confidence—the result of what may be called 
the evolution of commerce, and the principal stages in this evo¬ 
lution are an interesting study. First there was only barter in 
kind, as still practiced among savages—for example, the ex¬ 
change of a bushel of corn for a handful of arrow-heads. Then 
came the introduction of money as a medium of exchange ; and 
to-day we have the substitution of negotiable paper as docu¬ 
mentary evidence of indebtedness, including promissory notes, 
due bills, drafts, checks, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange, 
bank bills, treasury notes (greenbacks), and all other evidences 
of debt, the ownership of which may be transferred from one 
person to another. 

The mere acknowledgment of debt is not sufficient to make 
negotiable paper ; th o. promise of payment or an order on some 
one to pay is indispensable. This promise must be for money 
only. The amount must be exactly specified. The title must 
be transferable. This feature must be visible on the face of the 
paper by the use of such words as “bearer” or “order.” In some 
of the States peculiar phrases are ordered by statute, as “Payable 

without defalcation or discount,” or “Payable at-,” naming 

the bank or office. 

A written agreement, signed by one person, to pay another, at 
a fixed time, a stated sum of money, is a promissory note. It 
becomes negotiable by being made payable to an order on some 
one or to bearer. As it is a contract, a consideration is one of 
its essential elements. Yet, although it be void as between the 
two first parties, being negotiable and coming into the hands of 
another person who gives value for it, not knowing of its defect, 
it has full force and may be collected. 

The date is of great consequence. In computing time, the day 
of date is not counted, but it is the fixed point beginning the 
time at the end of which payment must be made. Omission of 
the date does not destroy a note, but the holder must prove to 
the time of its making. The promise to pay must be precise as 
to time which the note is to run. It must be at a fixed period, 
or conditional upon the occurrence of something certain to hap¬ 
pen, as “at sight,” “five days after sight,” “on demand,” “three 
months after date,” “ten days after the death of John Doe.” The 
time not being specified, the note is considered “payable on de¬ 
mand.” 

The maker, the person who promises and whose signature the 
note bears, must be competent. Insane people and idiots are 
naturally, and aliens, minors and married women may be legally , 
incompetent. The maker is responsible and binds himself to 
pay the amount stated on the note at its maturity. He need not 

118 



LEGAL ADVICE. 

pay it before it becomes due, but should he do so and neglect to 
cancel the note, he would be again responsible if any other per¬ 
son, without knowledge of such payment, acquired it for value 
before maturity. Even a receipt for payment from the first 
payee would not stand good against the subsequent holder. 

The payee is the person in whose favor the note is drawn— 
the legal holder, the person to whom the money must be paid. 
When a note is made payable simply to bearer, without naming 
the payee, any one holding the note honestly may collect. 

A subsequent party, one who comes into possession of the note 
after the original holder, has a better claim than the first one, 
for the reason that between the maker and the first payee there 
may have been, in the contract, some understanding or condition 
militating against the payment when it would become due, but 
the third person, knowing nothing of this, gives his value and 
receives the note. The law will always sustain the subsequent 
party. 

The indorser is held responsible if the maker fails to pay when 
the note arrives at maturity. A note payable to order must be 
indorsed by a holder upon passing it to another, and, as value 
has been given each time, the last holder will look to his next 
preceding one and to all the others. 

A note, being on deposit as collateral security, becoming due, 
the temporary holder is the payee and must collect. 

An indorsement is a writing across the back of the note, which 
makes the writer responsible for the amount of the note. There 
are various forms of indorsement. 

1. In blank , the indorser simply writing his name on the back 
of the note. 

2. General , or in full , the indorser writing above his signa¬ 
ture “Pay-” or “Pay-or order.” 

3. Qualified, the words “without recourse” being used after 
the name of the payee in the indorsement. 

4. Conditional , a condition being stated, as: “Pay-, 

unless payment forbidden before maturity.” 

5. Restrictive , as: “Pay-only.” 

The blank indorsement, the full indorsement and the general 
indorsement are practically the same ; each entitles the holder 
of the note to the money, and to look to the indorser for pay¬ 
ment if the maker of the note defaults. It has even been held 
that in a general indorsement the holder had the right to fill in 
the words “or order” if he saw fit. The qualified indorsement 
releases the indorser from an}' liability in case the maker of the 
note defaults. The conditional and restrictive indorsement are 
used only in special cases. Each indorser is severally and collect¬ 
ively liable for the whole amount of the note indorsed if it is 

119 










LEGAL ADVICE. 


dishonored, provided it is duly protested and notice given to 
each. The indorser looks to the man who indorsed it before 
him, and so back to the original maker of the note. As soon as 
a note is protested, it is vitally necessary that notice should be 
sent to each person interested at once. 

TO BE ON THE SAFE SIDE, it is well to see to it that 
any note offered for negotiation— 

Is dated correctly; 

Specifies the amount of money to be paid; 

Names the person to whom it is to be paid; 

Includes the words “or order” after the name of the payee, if 
it is desired to make the note negotiable; 

Appoints a place where the payment is to be made; 

States that the note is made “for value received;” 

And is signed by the maker or his duly authorized representa¬ 
tive. 

In some States phrases are required in the body of the note, 
such as, “without defalcation or discount ;” but, as a general 
thing, that fact is understood without the statement. 


Partnership. ♦' 

The general rule is that every person of sound mind, and not 
otherwise restrained by law, may enter into a contract of part¬ 
nership. 

There are several kinds of partners : 

1. Ostensible partners, or those whose names are made public 
as partners, and who in reality are such, and who take all the 
benefits and risks. 

2. Nominal partners, or those who appear before the public 
as partners, but who have no real interest in the business. 

3. Dormant , or silent partners, or those whose names are 
not known or do not appear as partners, but who, nevertheless, 
have an interest in the business. 

4. Special, or limited partners, or those who are interested in 
the business only to the amount of the capital they have invested 
in it. 

5. General partners, who manage the business, while the 
capital, either in whole or in part, is supplied by a special part¬ 
ner or partners. They are liable for all the debts and contracts 
of the firm. 

A nominal partner renders himself liable for all the debts and 
contracts of the firm. 

A dormant partner, if it becomes known that he has an inter¬ 
est, whether creditors trusted the firm on his account or not, be¬ 
comes liable equally with the other partners. 

The regulations concerning special or limited partnerships, in 

120 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


any particular State where recognized, are to be found in the 
statutes of such State ; and strict compliance with the statutes 
is necessary in order to avoid incurring the responsibilities at¬ 
taching to the position of general partner. 

A person who lends his name as a partner, or who suffers his 
name to continue in the firm after he has actually ceased to be a 
partner thereof, is still responsible to third persons as a partner. 

A partner may buy and sell partnership effects ; make con¬ 
tracts in reference to the business of the firm ; pay and receive 
money ; draw, and indorse, and accept bills and notes ; and all 
acts of such a nature, even though they be upon his own private 
account, will bind the other partners, if connected with matters 
apparently having reference to the business of the firm, and 
transacted with other parties ignorant of the fact that such deal¬ 
ings are for the particular partner’s private account. The repre- 
sentation or misrepresentation of any fact made in any partner¬ 
ship transaction by one partner, or the commission of any fraud 
in such transaction, will bind the entire firm, even though the 
other partners may have no connection with, or knowledge of 
the same. 

If a partner sign his individual name to negotiable paper, all 
the partners are bound thereby, if such paper appear on its face 
to be on partnership account. If negotiable paper of a firm be 
given by one partner on his private account, and in the course of 
its circulation pass into the hands of a bona fide holder for value, 
without notice or knowledge of the fact attending its creation, 
the partnership is bound thereby. 

One partner cannot bind the firm by deed, though he may by 
deed execute an ordinary release of a debt due the partnership. 

If no time be fixed in articles of copartnership for the com¬ 
mencement thereof, it is presumed to commence from the date 
and execution of the articles. If no precise period is mentioned 
for continuance, a partner may withdraw at any time, and dis¬ 
solve such partnership at his pleasure ; and even if a definite 
period be agreed upon, a partner may, by giving notice, dissolve 
the partnership as to all capacity of the firm to bind him by con¬ 
tracts thereafter made. The withdrawing partner subjects 
himself, however, to a claim for damages by reason of his 
breach of the covenant. 

The death of a partner dissolves the partnership, unless there 
be an express stipulation that, in such an event, the representa¬ 
tives of the deceased partner may continue the business in con¬ 
nection with the survivors, for the benefit of the widow and 
children. 

A partnership is dissolved by operation of law ; by a voluntary 
and bona fide assignment by any partner of his^ interest therein j 

m 


LEGAL ADVICE . 


by the bankruptcy or death of any of the partners ; or by a war 
between the countries of which the partners are subjects. 

Immediately after a dissolution, notice of the same should be 
published in the papers, and a special notice sent to every person 
who has had dealings with the firm. If these precautions be not 
taken, each partner will still continue liable for the acts of the 
others to all persons who have had no notice of such dissolution. 

DON’T enter into a partnership without carefully drawn 
articles, and don’t sign the articles until the partnership funds 
are on deposit. 

DON’T forget that a partner may be called upon to make 
good partnership losses with his individual property, and that 
each partner may be held for the acts of the other partners as 
well as for his own. 

DON’T enter a firm already established unless you are will¬ 
ing to become responsible for its debts. 

DON’T do anything out of the usual run of business without 
the consent of your partners. 

DON’T mix private matters with partnership affairs, and 
don’t continue in a partnership where trust and confidence are 
lacking. 

DON’T continue a partnership after expiration of articles, 
and do not make any change without due public notice. 

DON’T dissolve a partnership without due public notice or 
without designating a member to settle all matters outstanding. 


Agency and Attorney. 

By agency is meant the substitution of one person by and for 
another, the former to transact business for the latter. An 
agency may be established by implication —an express agree¬ 
ment with a person that he is to become the agent of another 
not being necessary—or verbally , or by writing. A verbal crea¬ 
tion of agency suffices to authorize the agent to make a contract 
even in cases where such contract must be in writing. 

Agency is of three kinds : special, general and professional. 
A special agency is an authority exercised for a special purpose. 
If a special agent exceed the limits of his authority, his principal 
is not bound by his acts. 

A general agency authorizes the transaction of all business of 
a particular kind, or growing out of a particular employment. 
The principal will be bound by the acts of a general agent, 
though the latter act contrary to private instructions, provided 
he keep, at the same time, within the general limits of his au¬ 
thority. 

Professional agents are those licensed by the proper authority 
to transact certain kinds of business for a compensation. The 

122 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


following are among this class of agents : i. Attorneys. 1 . 
Brokers. 3. Factors. 4. Auctioneers. 5. Masters of .Ships. 

In regard to the subject of an agency, the general rule is, that 
whatever a man may do in his own right he may also transact 
through another. Things of a personal nature, implying personal 
confidence on the part of the person possessing them, cannot be 
delegated. 

Infants, married women, lunatics, idiots, aliens, belligerents, 
and persons incapable of making legal contracts, cannot act as 
principals in the appointment of agents. Infants and married 
women may, however, become principals in certain cases. 

Agency may be terminated in two ways : (1) by the act of 
the principal or agent ; (2) by operation of law. in the latter 
case, the termination of the agency is effected by lapse of time, 
by completion of the subject-matter of the agency, by the ex- 
tinctionjOf the subject-matter, or by the insanity, bankruptcy or 
death of either party. 

DON’T do through another what would be illegal for you to 
do yourself. 

DON’T lose any time in repudiating illegal acts of your agent. 

DON’T make an illegal act of your agent’s your own by ac¬ 
cepting the benefit thereof. 

DON’T transact business through an agent unless he can 
show that he stands in his principal’s stead in the matter in 
hand. 

DON’T, as agent, appoint sub-agents without the consent of 
your principal. 

DON’T go beyond your authority in an agency unless you 
are willing to become personally responsible. 

DON’T accept an agency, or act as an attorney in fact, in com¬ 
plicated matters unless your powers are clearly defined in writing. 

Landlord and Tenant. 

Leases for one year or less need no written agreement. Leases 
for more than a year must be in writing ; if for life, signed, 
sealed, and witnessed in the same manner as any other import¬ 
ant document. 

Leases for over three years must be recorded. No particular 
form is necessary. 

If no agreement in writing for more than a year can be pro¬ 
duced, the tenant holds the property from year to year at the 
will of the landlord. If there is no agreement as to time, the 
tenant as a rule holds from year to year. 

A tenancy at will may be terminated by giving the tenant one 
month's notice in writing, requiring him to remove from the 
premises occupied. 


123 



LEGAL ADVICE. 

A tenant is not responsible for taxes, unless it is so stated in 
the lease. 

The tenant may underlet as much of the property as he de¬ 
sires, unless it is expressly forbidden in the lease. Tenants at 
will cannot underlet. 

A married woman cannot lease her property under the com¬ 
mon law, but this prohibition is removed by statute in most of 
the States. A husband cannot make a lease which will bind his 
wife’s property after his death. 

A lease made by a minor is not binding after the minor has 
attained his majority. It binds the lessee, however, unless the 
minor should release him. Should the minor receive rent after 
attaining his majority, the lease will be thereby ratified. A lease 
given by a guardian will not extend beyond the majority of the 
ward. 

A new lease renders void a former lease. 

In case there are no writings, the tenancy begins from the day 
possession is taken ; where there are writings and the time ot 
commencement is not stated, the tenancy will be held to com¬ 
mence from the date of said writings. 

Leases on mortgaged property, whereon the mortgage was 
given prior to the lease, terminate when the mortgage is fore¬ 
closed. 

Where a tenant assigns his lease, even with the landlord’s con¬ 
sent, he will remain liable for the rent unless his lease is sur¬ 
rendered or cancelled. 

There are many special features of the law of landlord and 
tenant in relation to agricultural tenancy. Generally an outgo¬ 
ing tenant cannot sell or take away the manure. A tenant 
whose estate has terminated by an uncertain event which he 
could neither foresee nor control is entitled to the annual crop 
which he sowed while his estate continued, by the law of emble¬ 
ments. He may also, in certain cases, take the emblements or 
annual profits of the land after his tenancy has ended, and, 
unless restricted by some stipulation to the contrary, may re¬ 
move such fixtures as he has erected during his occupation for 
convenience, profit or comfort; for, in general, what a tenant 
has added he may remove, if he can do so without injury to the 
premises, unless he has actually built it in so as to make it an 
integral part of what was there originally. 

The following are immovable fixtures : Agricultural erec¬ 
tions, fold-yard walls, cart house, barns fixed in the ground, 
beast house, carpenter shop, fuel house, pigeon house, pineries 
substantially fixed, wagon house, box borders not belonging to a 
gardener by trade, flowers, trees, hedges, ale-house bar, dress¬ 
ers, partitions, locks and keys, benches affixed to the house, 

124 


LEGAL ADVICE. 


statue erected as an ornament to grounds, sun dial, chimney 
piece not ornamental, closets affixed to the house, conduits, 
conservatory, substantially affixed, doors, fruit trees if a 
tenant be not a nurseryman by trade, glass windows, hearths, 
millstones, looms substantially affixed to the floor of a factory, 
threshing machines fixed by bolts and screws to posts let into 
the ground. 

DON’T occupy premises until a written lease is in your pos¬ 
session, and don’t depend on promises of a landlord unless thej 
are part of such lease. 

DON’T accept a married woman as tenant unless the law of 
the State permit her to make an executory contract. 

DON’T think that you can legally eject sub-tenants unless 
you have given them notice of the tenant’s forfeiture of his lease. 

DON’T make such improvements in premises occupied by 
you as the law would regard as immovable fixtures, unless you 
are willing to turn them over to the landlord when your lease 
expires. A building erected on foundations sunk into the ground 
would become part of the realty and thus belong to the landlord. 

DON’T think, however, that you have no right to remove 
trade fixtures erected by you. 

DON’T accept less than thirty days’ notice when you rent by 
the month. 

DON’T forget that where premises are let for illegal use the 
law will not aid you in collecting arrears for rent. 


Law Relating to Farms, Etc. 

In a deed to agricultural property the boundaries should be 
clearly determined. The question, What does the farmer get? is 
answered by these boundaries, and the deed to a farm always in¬ 
cludes the dwelling houses, barns and other improvements 
thereon belonging to the grantor, even though these are not 
mentioned. It also conveys all the fences standing on the farm, 
but all might not think it also included the fencing-stuff, posts, 
rails, etc., which had once been used in the fence, but had been 
taken down and piled up for future use again in the same place. But 
new fencing material, just bought, and never attached to the 
soil, would not pass. So piles of hop poles, stored away, if once 
used on the land, and intended to be again so used, have been 
considered a part of it, but loose boards or scaffold poles, merely 
laid across the beams of a barn and never fastened to it, would 
not be, and the seller of the farm might take them away. Stand¬ 
ing trees, of course, also pass, as part of the land; so do trees 
blown down or cut down, and still left in the woods where they 
fell, but not if cut and corded up for sale; the wood has then be¬ 
come personal property. 


125 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


If there be any manure in the barnyard or in the compost heap 
on the field, ready for immediate use the buyer ordinarily, in 
the absence of any contrary agreement, takes that also as be¬ 
longing to the farm, though it might not be so if the owner had 
previously sold it to some other party, and had collected it to¬ 
gether in a heap by itself, for such an act might be a technical 
severance from the soil, and so convert real into personal es¬ 
tate; and even a lessee of a farm could take away the manure 
made on the place while he was in occupation. Growing crops 
also pass by the deed of a farm unless they are expressly re¬ 
served, and when it is not intended to convey those it should be 
so stated in the deed itself; a mere oral agreement to that effect 
would not be, in most States, valid in law. Another mode is to 
stipulate that possession is not to be given until some future day, 
in which case the crops or manures may be removed before that 
time. 

An adjoining road is, to its middle, owned by the farmer 
whose land is bound, unless there are reservations to the con¬ 
trary in the deeds through which he derives title. But this own¬ 
ership is subject to the right of the public to the use of the 
road. 

If a tree grows so as to come over the land of a neighbor, the 
latter may cut away the parts which so come over, for he owns 
his land and all that is above or below it. If it be a fruit tree he 
may cut every branch or twig which comes over his land, but he 
cannot touch the fruit which falls to the land. The owner of 
the tree may enter peaceably upon the land of the neighbor 
and take up the branches and fruit. 


Lien Laws. 

Any one who, as contractor, sub-contractor or laborer, per¬ 
forms any work, or furnishes any materials, in pursuance of, or 
in conformity with, any agreement or contract with the owner, 
lessee, agent or one in possession of the property, toward the 
erection, altering, improving or repairing of any building, shall 
have a lien for the value of such labor or materials on the build¬ 
ing or land on which it stands to the extent of the right, title 
and interest of the owner, lessee or person in possession at the 
time of the claimant’s filing his notice with the clerk of the 
county court. Such lien is called a mechanic’s lien. 

The notice should be filed within thirty days after comple¬ 
tion of the work or the furnishing of the materials, and should 
state the residence of the claimant, the amount claimed, from 
whom due, when due, and to whom due, the name of the person 
against whom claimed, the name of the owner, lessee or person 
in possession of the premises, with a brief description of the latter. 

126 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


Liens cease in one year after the filing of the notice, unless an 
action is begun, or the lien is continued by an order of court. 

The following classes of persons are generally entitled to lien: 
I. Bailees, who may perform labor and services, on the thing 
bailed, at the request of the bailor. 2. Innkeepers, upon the 
baggage of guests they have accommodated. 3. Common carri¬ 
ers, upon goods carried, for the amount of their freight and dis¬ 
bursements. 4. Vendors, on the goods sold for payment of the 
price where no credit has been expressly promised or implied. 
5. Agents, upon goods of their principals, for advancements for 
the benefit of the latter. 6. All persons are entitled to the 
right of lien who are compelled by law to receive property and 
bestow labor or expense on the same. 

The right of lien may be waived: 1. By express contract. 2. 
By neglect. 3. By new agreement. 4. By allowing change of 
possession. 5. By surrendering possession. 

The manner of the enforcement of a lien, whether it be an inn¬ 
keeper’s, agent’s, carrier’s, factor’s, etc., depends wholly upon the 
nature and character of the lien. 

DON’T purchase real estate unless the records have been 
thoroughly searched for all liens known to the law, or until all 
notices of action against the same have been discharged. 

DON’T think thatyou haveno right to sell perishable property 
on which you have a lien. Your lien will attach to the proceeds. 

DON’T foreclose a lien without proper notice. 

DON’T make payments to a contractor before you have full 
knowledge of all liens filed. 

DON’T forget that liens take precedence according to pri¬ 
ority, and that interest always runs on a judgment. 

Deeds—Transfer of Property. 

A deed is a writing by which lands, tenements or heredita¬ 
ments are conveyed, sealed and delivered. It must be written or 
printed on parchment or paper; the parties must be competent 
to contract; there must be a proper object to grant; a sufficient 
consideration; an agreement properly declared; if desired, it 
must have been read to the party executing it; it must be signed 
and sealed; attested by witnesses, in the absence of any statute 
regulation to the contrary; properly acknowledged before a 
competent officer; and recorded within the time and in the office 
prescribed by the State wherein executed. 

The maker of a deed is the grantor; the party to whom it is 
delivered, the grantee. If the grantor have a wife, she must, in 
the absence of a statute to the contrary, sign and acknowledge 
the deed; otherwise, after the husband’s death, she may claim 
the use of one-third, during her life. 

127 



LEGAL ADVICE . 


By a general warranty deed the grantor covenants to insure the 
lands against all persons whatsoever; by a. special warranty deed 
he warrants only against himself and those claiming under him. 
In deeds made by executors, administrators or guardians there is 
generally no warranty. A quit-claim deed releases all the interest 
which the grantor has in the land, whatever it may be. 

A deed of trust is given to a person called a trustee, to hold in 
fee simple, or otherwise, for the use of some other person who is 
entitled to the proceeds, profits or use. 

A deed may be made void by alterations made in it after its 
execution; by the disagreement of the parties whose concurrence 
is necessary; or by the judgment of a competent tribunal. 

Interlineations or erasures in a deed, made before signing, 
should be mentioned in a note, and witnessed in proper form. 
After the acknowledgment of a deed the parties have no right to 
make the slightest alteration. An alteration of a deed after 
execution, if made in favor of the grantee, vitiates the deed. If 
altered before delivery, such alteration destroys the deed as to 
the party altering it. 

Abstracts of title are brief accounts of all the deeds upon 
which titles rest, and judgments and instruments affecting such 
titles. 

The evidences of title are usually conveyances, wills, orders 
or decrees of courts, judgments, judicial sales, sales by offi¬ 
cers appointed by law, acts of the Legislature and of Con¬ 
gress. 

DON’T accept a deed unless all the following conditions are 
complied with: i. It must be signed, sealed and witnessed. 2. 
Interlineations must be mentioned in the certificate of acknowl¬ 
edgment. 3. All the partners must join in a deed from a part¬ 
nership. 4. A deed from a corporation should bear the corpo¬ 
rate seal and be signed by officers designated in the resolution 
of the directors authorizing it. 5. A deed from a married 
woman should be joined in by the husband. 6. A deed from an 
executor should recite his power of sale. 7. The consideration 
must be expressed. 

DON’T deed property to your wife direct. A deed to your 
wife does not cut off obligations contracted previously. 

DON’T pay consideration money on a conveyance of real 
estate until the record has been searched to the moment of pass¬ 
ing title, and unless you know of your own knowledge that no 
judgments, mortgages or tax liens are outstanding against the 
property. 

DON’T delay in having a deed or mortgage recorded. 

DON’T attempt to give a better title than you have your¬ 
self. 


128 


Mortgages. 

A mortgage is a conveyance of property, either real or per¬ 
sonal, to secure payment of a debt. When the debt is paid the 
mortgage becomes void and of no value. In real estate mort¬ 
gages the person giving the mortgage retains possession of the 
property, receives all the debts and other profits, and pays all 
taxes and other expenses. The instrument must be acknowl¬ 
edged, like a deed, before a proper public officer, and recorded in 
the office of the county clerk or recorder, or whatever officer’s 
duty it is to record such instruments. All mortgages must con¬ 
tain a redemption clause and must be signed and sealed. The 
time when the debt becomes due, to secure which the mortgage is 
given, must be plainly set forth and the property conveyed 
must be clearly described, located and scheduled. 

Some mortgages contain a clause permitting the sale of the 
property without decree of court when a default is made in the 
payment either of the principal sum or the interest. 

A foreclosure is a statement that the property is forfeited and 
must be sold. 

When a mortgage is assigned to another person, it must be 
for a valuable consideration; and the note or notes which it was 
given to secure must be given at the same time. 

If the mortgaged property, when foreclosed and brought to 
sale, brings more money than is needed to satisfy the debt, inter¬ 
est and costs, the surplus must be paid to the mortgagor. 

Satisfaction of mortgages upon real or personal property may 
be either— 

1. By an entry upon the margin of the record thereof, signed by 
the mortgagee or his attorney, assignee or personal representa¬ 
tive, acknowledging the satisfaction of the mortgage, in the 
presence of the recording officer; or — 

2. By a receipt indorsed upon the mortgage, signed by the 
mortgagee, his agent or attorney, which receipt may be entered 
upon the margin of the record; or — 

3. It may be discharged upon the record thereof whenever 
there is presented to the proper officer an instrument acknowl¬ 
edging the satisfaction of such mortgage, executed by the mort¬ 
gagee, his duly authorized attorney in fact, assignee or personal 
representative, and acknowledged in the same manner as other 
instruments affecting real estate. 

Chattel mortgages are mortgages on personal property. Most 
of the rules applicable to mortgages on real estate apply also to 
those on personal property, though in some States there are 
laws regulating personal mortgages. Any instrument will 
answer the purpose of a chattel mortgage which would answer 
as a bill of sale, with a clause attached providing for the avoid¬ 
ance of the mortgage when the debt is paid. 

A chattel mortgage will not cover property subsequently ac- 

129 


LEGAL ADVICE. 

quired by the mortgagor. Mortgages of personal property 
should contain a clause providing for the equity of redemption. 
A mortgagee may sell or transfer his mortgage to another 
party for a consideration, but such property cannot be seized or 
sold until the expiration of the period for which the mortgage 
was given. Mortgages given with intent to defraud creditors 
are void. 

DON’T lose any time in having a mortgage properly 
recorded. 

DON’T pay installments on chattel mortgages unless the 
same are indorsed thereon. 

DON'T lose sight of the fact that a chattel mortgage is a con¬ 
ditional bill of sale. 

DON’T accept a chattel mortgage the term whereof is for 
more than a year. 

DON’T neglect to have a chattel mortgage signed, sealed and 
witnessed, and don’t fail to see to it that the schedule contains 
every article embraced under it. 

DON’T fail to see to it that goods or chattels mortgaged to 
you are properly insured. 

DON’T suppose that a chattel mortgage is valid when the 
debt to be secured by it is not. 

DON’T give a chattel mortgage payable on demand unless 
you are prepared to forfeit the chattels at any moment. 

DON’T think that destruction by fire or otherwise of the 
chattels mortgaged wipes out the debt. 

DON’T forget that foreclosure in the case of a chattel mort¬ 
gage is unnecessary except to cut off claims of other creditors. 


Assignments. 

An assignment is a transfer of property made in writing. In 
effect it is passing to another person all of one’s title or interest 
in any sort of real or personal property, rights, actions or 
estates. However, some things are not assignable; an officer’s 
pay or commission, a judge’s salary, fishing claims, Government 
bounties, or claims arising out of frauds or torts. Personal 
trusts cannot be assigned, as a guardianship or the right of a 
master in his apprentice. 

Unlike many other legal devices the holder of an assignment 
is not bound to show that a valuable consideration was given. 
The owner of a cause of action may give it away if he pleases, 
and in the positive absence of evidence to the contrary the 
court will presume that the assignment was for a sufficient con¬ 
sideration. 

Proof will be called for only when it appears that the assign¬ 
ment was a mere sham or fraudulent. No formality is required 

130 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


b y law in an assignment. Any instrument between the con¬ 
tracting parties which goes to show their intention to pass the 
property from one to another will be sufficient. It may be 
proved, for instance, by the payee of a note, that he indorsed (or 
delivered without indorsement) the note to the assignee, and 
this is sufficient evidence of assignment. 

In every assignment of an instrument, even not negotiable, 
the assignee impliedly warrants the validity of the instrument 
and the obligation of the third party to pay it. He warrants 
that there is no legal defense against its collection arising out of 
his connection with the parties; that all parties were legally 
able to contract, and that the amount is unpaid. 

An assignment carries with it all the collateral securities and 
guaranties of the original debt, even though they are not men¬ 
tioned in the instrument. 

Where property is assigned for the benefit of creditors, its act¬ 
ual transfer to the assignee must be made immediately. When 
an assignment is made under the common law, the assignor may 
prefer certain creditors; but in a State where this sort of an as¬ 
signment is governed by statute, no preference can be shown. 
An assignment for the benefit of creditors covers all of the as¬ 
signor’s property, wherever or whatever it may be, that is not 
exempt from execution. 

When insured property is sold the insurance policy should be 
assigned. This can only be done with the consent of the in¬ 
surer, and that consent must be at once obtained. 

Correct schedules of the property assigned should accompany 
and be attached to every assignment. 

Inns, Hotels and Boarding-houses. 

An inn, or hotel, is a place of entertainment for travelers. If 
an innkeeper opens his house for travelers, it is an implied en¬ 
gagement to entertain all persons who travel that way, and upon 
this universal assumption an action will lie against him for 
damages if he, without good reason, refuses to admit a trav¬ 
eler. V 

Innkeepers are responsible for the safe custody of the goods of 
their guests, and can limit their liability only by an express 
agreement or special contract with their guests; but if goods are 
lost through negligence of the owner himself the innkeeper’s 
liability ceases. An innkeeper may retain the goods of his guest 
until the amount of the guest’s bill has been paid. 

A boarding-house is not an inn, nor is a coffee-house or eat¬ 
ing-room. A boarding-house keeper has no lien on the goods of 
a boarder except by special agreement, nor is he responsible for 
their safe custody. He is liable, however, for loss caused by the 

131 



LEGAL ADVICE. 

negligence of his servants. An innkeeper is liable for loss with¬ 
out such negligence. - 

Bonds. 

A written instrument, admitting an obligation on the part of 
the maker to pay a certain sum of money to another specified 
person at a fixed time, for a valuable consideration, is called a 
bond. The obligor is the one giving the bond; the beneficiary is 
called the obligee. This definition applies to all bonds, but gen¬ 
erally these instruments are given to guarantee the performance 
or non-performance of certain acts by the obligor, which being 
done or left undone, as the case may be, the bond becomes void, 
but if the conditions are broken it remains in full force. As a 
rule, the bond is made out for a sum twice the amount of any 
debt which is apt to be incurred by the obligor under its con¬ 
ditions, the statement being set forth that the sum named is the 
penalty, as liquidated or settled damages, in the event of the 
failure of the obligor to carry out the conditions. 

An act of Providence, whereby the accomplishment of a bond 
is rendered impossible, relieves the obligor of all liability. 

A bond for the payment of money differs from a promissory 
note only in having a seal. 


Bills of Sale. 

A bill of sale is a formal written conveyance of personal prop¬ 
erty. If the property is delivered when sold, or if part of the 
purchase money is paid, a written instrument is not necessary to 
make the conveyance, but it is convenient evidence of the trans¬ 
fer of title. But, to protect the interests of the purchaser 
against the creditors of the seller, the bill is not sufficient of 
itself; there should also be a delivery of the property. If an act¬ 
ual and continued change of possession does not accompany 
the sale it is void as against the creditors of the seller and subse¬ 
quent purchasers and mortgagees in good faith, unless the buyer 
can show that his purchase was made in good faith, without in¬ 
tent to defraud, and that there was some good reason for leav¬ 
ing the property in the hands of the seller. 


Guaranty 

Is an assurance made by a second party that his principal will 
perform some specific act. For instance, A gives B a note, and 
C by indorsing the instrument guarantees to B that A will pay 
it at maturity. C is the guarantor. His liability is special, and 
if B renews the note when it becomes due he is no longer liable. 
A guaranty for collection is a very different thing from a guar¬ 
anty of payment. The first warrants that the money is collect- 

132 





LEGAL ADVICE. 


ible; the latter, that it will be paid at maturity. In the first case 
the party guaranteed must be able to prove that due diligence 
was employed in attempting to collect the money; in the second, 
no such proof is necessary. The only form necessary in guaran¬ 
teeing a note is writing one’s name across the back of it,—a pro¬ 
cess commonly called indorsing. 


Corporations. 

Several persons joining together for the accomplishment of 
any business or social purpose can legally organize themselves 
into a corporation, a form of partnership which combines the 
resources of all, and yet gives a limited pecuniary liability, 
amounting only to the amount of stock owned by each stock¬ 
holder. In the States, the legislature of each Commonwealth 
enjoys the power of regulating the corporations, and in the Terri¬ 
tories this power is, of course, vested in the General Government. 
The actual cost of organization amounts to something less than 
$10, most of which is in fees to the Secretary of State. When 
the stock has been subscribed a meeting is called, and each share¬ 
holder casts a vote for every share which he owns or holds a 
proxy for, for each person who is to be elected director, or he 
may give one director as many votes as the number of shares he 
is voting, multiplied by the number of directors to be elected, 
amounts to. or distribute his votes as he chooses. Thus, if he 
owns ten shares of stock and there are six directors to be elected, 
he has sixty votes, which he can give, either ten for each director, 
or twenty for each of three, or sixty for one, or in any other way 
that he sees fit, so that his whole vote will not be more than sixty 
votes. These directors meet as soon after the election as pos¬ 
sible and choose a president, vice-president, secretary and treas¬ 
urer, whereupon the corporation is ready for business. 

The law in all the States on the subject of incorporating com¬ 
panies is very similar, and the necessary forms are to be obtained 
usually from the Secretary of State. 

Wills and How to Make Them. 

Every description of property, whether real or personal, may 
be given by will. In the case of persons dying owing debts, 
however, the law gives to the executors sufficient of the personal 
property of the deceased to pay off all existing indebtedness, 
irrespective of the terms of the will; and where the personal 
property is not sufficient for this purpose, real property may be 
so appropriated. 

Property may be bequeathed by will to all persons, including 
married women, infants, lunatics, idiots, etc. 

Wills may be made by any person not disqualified by age or 

133 




LEGAL ADVICE. 


mental incapacity. Generally speaking, a person must have at¬ 
tained the age of twenty-one years before he or she can make 
a valid will of lands, and the same age, in many States, is re¬ 
quired for a will of solely personal property. 

In New York males of eighteen and females of sixteen are 
competent to bequeath personal property. “Sound and disposing 
mind and memory” are always essential to the validity of any 
will. For this reason, idiots, lunatics, intoxicated persons (dur¬ 
ing intoxication), and persons of unsound or weak minds, are 
incompetent to make wills. A will procured by fraud is also 
invalid, although the testator be fully competent to make a valid 
will. All wills must be in writing, except those made by soldiers in 
active service during war, and by sailors while at sea. Such 
persons may make a verbal or nuncupative will, under certain 
restrictions, as to witnesses, etc. No particular form of words 
is required. 

A valid will must be subscribed or signed by the testator, or 
some one for him, in his presence, and at his request. The sig¬ 
nature must be affixed in the presence of each of the witnesses. 
In case the will be signed by some one for him, the testator must 
acknowledge the signature to be his own in presence of the wit¬ 
nesses. The testator must declare to each of the subscribing 
witnesses that the instrument is his “last will and testament.” 
This is of the utmost importance, and is called the “publication.” 
There must be at least two (three are required in some of the 
States) subscribing witnesses, who must act as such at the tes¬ 
tator’s request, or at the request of some one in his presence. 
The subscribing witnesses must not be beneficially interested in 
the provisions of the will. These witnesses must all sign the will 
in the presence of the testator, and (in New York and some of 
the other States) in the presence of each other. 

A codicil is an appendix annexed to the will after its execution, 
whereby the testator makes some change in, or addition to, his 
former disposition, and must be signed, published and attested 
in the same manner as the original will. 

The revocation of a will may be express or implied. Express, 
by the execution of a new and later will, or by the intentional 
destruction of the old one, or by a formal written revocation, 
signed and witnessed in the same manner as the will itself. An 
implied revocation is wrought by the subsequent marriage of the 
testator and the birth of children, or by either. 

DON’T leave anything uncertain in a will, and don’t neglect 
to declare it to be your last will and testament. 

DON’T make a will without two (better three) witnesses, none 
of whom must be interested in it. See that each witness writes 
his full name and address. 


134 


LEGAL ADVICE. 


DON’T make a new will unless you destroy or revoke the old 
one, and don’t add a codicil unless it is executed in the same way 
as the original will. 

DON’T neglect to make a new will if you mortgage or sell 
property devised or bequeathed in a prior one. 

DON’T make a will which does not provide for children that 
may be born. 

DON’T will property to a corporation whose charter does not 
permit it to take by devise or bequest. 

DON’T fail to say “bequeath” for personal and “devise” for 
real property. 


Heirship to Property Not Bequeathed. 

In England, where the policy is to keep landed estates undivided, 
the law of primogeniture prevails, giving to the eldest son and 
his descendants superior rights to the property. In case of de¬ 
fault, the second son and his descendants become the heirs, and 
so on. If there be only daughters, they inherit equally. 

In the United States the property would be divided among the 
heirs as follows: (i.) To the children. These, if of equal de¬ 
gree, receive the property in equal shares. If of unequal degree, 
the more remote descendants take the share that would have be¬ 
longed to their parent, if living. Thus: A, B and C are children 
of the testator, and of these B and C are living and A is dead, 
at the testator’s death. The estate, after paying all debts, will be 
divided into three equal parts, the descendants of A, together, 
receiving one-third, and B and C each another third; but in case 
A left no descendants, then B and C each will be awarded one 
half of the property. (2.) If there are no descendants the 
parents of the testator would receive the estate, the father being 
sometimes preferred to the mother. (3.) If parents are 
not living, the brothers and sisters of the testator would 
take the property, sharing equally. If one or more of the 
brothers or sisters had died, their children would receive the share 
that would have descended to their parent. (4.) Grandparents 
would be the next claimants, after which (5.) uncles and aunts, 
and after them (6.) their children, and so on. In case no heirs 
are found, the property inures to the State. 

The above principles are stated as generally recognized in the 
laws of the several States. As these laws, however, vary, full 
information can only be obtained from the statutes of the several 
States. 


Legacies and the Duties of Executors and Administrators. 

A legacy is a gift or bequest of personal property by will or 
testament. Legacies are of three kinds: General, specific and 
demonstrative. 135 




LEGAL ADVICE. 

A general legacy does not amount to a bequest ol any par¬ 
ticular portion of, or article belonging to, the personal estate of 
the testator, as distinguished from all others of the same kind; 
as a bequest of a sum of money, or a horse. 

A specific legacy is a bequest of property specifically desig¬ 
nated, so as to be definitely distinguished from the rest of the 
testator’s estate; as, a bequest of all the money contained in a 
certain box, or the horse in the testator’s stable. 

A demonstrative legacy is a bequest of a certain amount of 
money to be paid out of a particular fund; as, a bequest of $500 
to be paid out of the proceeds of the sale of certain property. 

An executor should first extinguish all the lawful debts of the 
testator, and for this purpose all the personal property may be 
applied, if necessary, even though some of it has been bequeathed 
in specific legacies. After the debts are paid, the specific legacies 
are next to be satisfied; then the demonstrative legacies; and 
lastly, the general legacies. If there be insufficient assets to 
satisfy any of the legacies in either of these three classes suc¬ 
cessively, those in the same class will be paid ratably and in 
proportion, and subsequent classes will fail entirely. 

Residuary legatees take subject to all other legacies. A resid¬ 
uary legatee is one to whom is bequeathed “all the rest, residue 
and remainder” of an estate. 

Specific and general legacies are subject to ademption; thus, if 
the testator bequeath “the horse in his stable,” and at the time of 
his death has no horse, the legacy fails entirely and is said to be 
“adeemed.” Or, if the legacy bequeaths the furniture in a cer¬ 
tain specified house, and the testator remove the furniture to 
another house, the legacy is adeemed. 

Legacies are vested, or contingent. A vested legacy is one 
where the legatee acquires an absolute present right to present 
or future enjoyment. A contingent legacy is one where the 
right of enjoyment depends upon some contingency; as, a gift to 
a child if he attains the age of twenty-one years. . A cumulative 
legacy is one additional to a previous legacy contained in the 
same will. 

In New York, and several other States, a legacy given to a 
subscribing witness of a will is void. An executor may be a 
legatee. It is also provided that “no person having a husband, 
wife, child, or parent, shall bequeath to a corporation more than 
one half of his personal estate after the payment of his debts.” 

Legacies are not required to be paid in less than one year from 
the time of the testator’s death. This time is allowed to the ex¬ 
ecutor to enable him to ascertain the nature and value of the 
property, the full liabilities of the testator and to collect the 
assets. 


136 


* LEGAL ADVICE. 

A legacy to an infant should not be paid except under ordc/ of 
the court, and such order will be governed by the laws of the 
State. 

DON’T become an executor or administrator unless you are 
willing and have time to attend to the duties, and don’t enter 
upon a trust until you thoroughly understand your duties and 
powers. 

DON’T mix trust and personal funds. 

DON’T pay out a dollar of trust money without proper 
vouchers, and don’t fail to keep accurate accounts. 

DON’T liquidate any claim until you have the whole estate in 
hand. 

DON’T pay a bequest before the time fixed in the will without 
deducting interest. 

DON’T give a promissory note as executor or administrator. 

DON’T execute a contested will, or compromise a claim due 
an estate, without the advice and consent of the court. 

DON’T incur any other expenses than those of the burial 
until the will is properly probated, but do not hesitate to sell 
perishable property. 


The Right of Dower. 

Dower is one-third part of the husband’s estate, and in general 
cannot be destroyed by the mere act of the husband. Hence, in 
the sale of real estate by the husband, his wife must, with the 
husband, sign the conveyance to make the title complete to the 
purchaser. In the absence of such signature, the widow can 
claim full dower rights after the husband’s death. Creditors, 
also, seize the property subject to such dowry rights. 

The husband in his will sometimes gives his wife property in 
lieu of dowery. In this case she may, after his death, elect to 
take either such property or her dower; but she cannot take both. 
While the husband lives the wife’s right of dower is only inchoate; 
it cannot be enforced. Should he sell the land to a stranger, she 
has no right of action or remedy until his death. 

In all cases the law of the State in which the land is situated 
governs it, and, as in the case of heirship, full information must 
be sought for in statute which is applicable. 


Marriage and Divorce. 

Marriage may be entered into by any two persons, with the 
following exceptions: Idiots, lunatics, persons of unsound mind, 
persons related by blood or affinity within certain degrees pro¬ 
hibited by law, infants under the age of consent, which varies in 
the different States, and all persons already married and not 
legally divorced. 


137 




LEGAL ADVICE. 


The violation of the marriage vow is cause for absolute divorce 
In all the States and Territories, excepting South Carolina and 
New Mexico, which have no divorce laws. 

Physical inability is a cause in all the States except Cal., Conn., Dak., Ia., La., 
N. M., N. Y., S. C., Tex. and Vt. In most of these States it renders marriage 
voidable. 

Willful desertion, one year, in Ark., Cal., Col., Dak., Fla., Ida., Kan., Ky., 
Mo., Mon., Nev., Utah, Wis., W. T. and Wyo. 

Willful desertion, two years, in Ala., Ariz., Ill., Ind., Ia., Mich., Miss., Neb., 
f»a. and Tenn. 

Willful desertion, three years, in Conn., Del., Ga., Me., Md., Mass., Minn., N. 
H., N. J., O., Ore., Tex., Vt. and W. Va. 

Willful desertion, five years, in Va. and R. I., though the court may in the latter 
State decree a divorce for a shorter period. 

Habitual drunkenness, in all the States and Territories, except Md., N. J., N. Y., 
N. C., Pa., S. C., Tex., Vt., Va. and W. Va. 

“Imprisonment for felony” or “conviction of felony” in all the States and Terri¬ 
tories (with limitations), except Dak., Fla., Me., Md., N. J., N. M., N. Y., N. C., 
S. C. and Utah. 

“Cruel and abusive treatment,” “Intolerable cruelty,” “extreme cruelty,” “re¬ 
peated cruelty,” or “ inhuman treatment,” in all the States and Territories except 
N. J., N. M., N. Y., N. C., S. C., Va. and W. Va. 

Failure by the husband to provide: one year in Cal., Col., Dak., Nev. and 
Wyo.; two years in Ind. and Ida.; no time specified in Ariz., Ida., Mass., Mich., 
Me., Neb , R. I., Vt. and Wis.; willful neglect for three years in Del. 

Fraud and fraudulent contract in Ariz., Conn., Ga., Ida., Kan., Ky., O., Pa. 
and W. T. 

Absence without being heard from : three years in N. H.; seven years in Conn, 
and Vt.; separation five years, in Ky.; voluntary separation, five years, in Wis. 
When reasonably presumed dead by the court, in R. I. 

“ Ungovernable temper,” in Ky.; “habitual indulgence in violent and ungovern¬ 
able temper,” in Fla.; “cruel treatment, outrages or excesses as to render their 
living together insupportable ” in Ark., Ky., La , Mo., Tenn. and Tex.; “indignities 
as render life burdensome,” in Ma, Ore., Pa , Tenn., W. T. and Wyo. 

In Ga. an absolute divorce is granted only after the concurrent verdict of two Juries 
at different terms of the court. In N. Y. absolute divorce is granted for but one 
cause, adultery. 

All of the causes above enumerated are for absolute or full 
divorce, and collusion and connivance are especially barred, and 
also condonation of violation of the marriage vow. 

The courts of every State, and particularly of New York, are 
very jealous of their jurisdiction, and generally refuse to recog¬ 
nize as valid a divorce against one of the citizens of the State by 
the court of another State, unless both parties to the suit were 
subject at the same time to the jurisdiction of the court granting 
the divorce. 

Previous Residence Required.— Dak., ninety days; Cal., Ind., 
Ida., Neb., Nev., N. M., Tex. and Wyoming, six months; Ala., Ariz., Ark., Col., 
Ill., Ia., Kan., Ky., Me., Miss., Minn., Mich., Mo., Mont., N. H., O., Ore., Pa., 
Utah, Vt. (both parties as husband and wife), W. Va., W. T. and Wis., one year; 
Fla., Md., N. C., R. I. and Tenn., two years; Conn and Mass, (if, when married,' 
both parties were residents; otherwise five years), three years. 

Remarriage* —There are no restrictions upon remarriage by divorced per¬ 
sons in Conn., Ky., III. and Minn. Defendant must wait two years and obtain 
permission from the court in Mass. The decree of the court may restrain the guilty 
party from remarrying in Va. Parties cannot remarry until after two years, except 

138 


LEGAL ADVICE. 


by permission of the court, in Me. In N. Y. the plaintiff may remarry, but the de¬ 
fendant cannot do so during the plaintiff’s lifetime, unless the decree be modified 
or proof that five years have elapsed, and that complainant has married again and 
defendant’s conduct has been uniformly good. Any violation of this is punished as 
bigamy, even though the other party has been married. In Del., Pa. and Tenn., 
no wife or husband divorced for violation of the marriage vow can marry the parti- 
ceps critninis during the life of the former husband or wife, nor in La. at any time ; 
such marriage in La. renders the person divorced guilty of bigamy. 

Eights of Married Women. 

Any and all property which a woman owns at her marriage, 
together with the rents, issues and profits thereof, and the prop¬ 
erty that comes to her by descent, devise, bequest, gift or grant, 
or which she acquires by her trade, business labor, or services 
performed on her separate account, shall, notwithstanding her 
marriage, remain her sole and separate property, and may be 
used, collected and invested by her in her own name, and shall 
not be subject to the interference or control of her husband, or be 
liable for his debts, unless for such debts as may have been con¬ 
tracted for the support of herself or children by her as his agent. 

A married woman may likewise bargain, sell, assign, transfer 
and convey such property, and enter into contracts regarding 
the same on her separate trade, labor or business with the like 
effect as if she were unmarried. Her husband, however, is not 
liable for such contracts, and they do not render him or his 
property in any way liable therefor. She may also sue and be 
sued in all matters having relation to her sole and separate 
property in the same manner as if she were sole. 

In the following cases a married woman’s contract may be 
enforced against her and her separate estate : i. When the 
contract is created in or respecting the carrying on of the trade 
or business of the wife. 2. When it relates to or is made for the 
benefit of her sole or separate estate. 3. When the intention to 
charge the separate estate is expressed in the contract creat¬ 
ing the liability. 

When a husband receives a principal sum of money belonging 
to his wife, the law presumes he receives it for her use, and he 
must account for it, or expend it on her account by her authority 
or direction, or that she gave it to him as a gift. 

If he receives interest or income and spends it with her 
knowledge and without objection, a gift will be presumed from 
acquiescence. 

Money received by a husband from his wife and expended by 
him, under her direction, on his land, in improving the home of 
the family, is a gift, and cannot be recovered by the wife, or re¬ 
claimed, or an account demanded. 

An appropriation by a wife, herself, of her separate property 
to the use and benefit of her husband, in the absence of an agree- 

139 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


ment to repay, or any circumstances from which such an agree¬ 
ment can be inferred, will not create the relation of debtor and 
creditor, nor render the husband liable to account. 

Though no words of gift be spoken, a gift by a wife to her 
husband may be shown by the very nature of the transaction, 
or appear from the attending circumstances. 

A wife who causelessly deserts her husband is not entitled to 
the .aid of a court of equity in getting possession of such chattels 
as she has contributed to the furnishing and adornment of her 
husband’s house. Her legal title remains, and she could convey 
her interest to a third party by sale, and said party would have a 
good title, unless her husband should prove a gift. 

Wife’s property is not liable to a lien of a sub-contractor for 
materials furnished to the husband for the erection of a building 
thereon, where it is not shown that the wife was notified of the 
intention to furnish the materials, or a settlement made with the 
contractor and given to the wife, her agent or trustee. 

The common law of the United States has some curious pro¬ 
visions regarding the rights of married women, though in all the 
States there are statutory provisions essentially modifying this law. 
As it now stands the husband is responsible for necessaries sup¬ 
plied to the wife even should he not fail to supply them himself, 
and is held liable if he turn her from his house, or otherwise 
separates himself from her without good cause. He is not held 
liable if the wife deserts him, or if he turns her away for good 
cause. If she leaves him through good cause, then he is liable. 
If a man lives with a woman as his wife, and so represents her, 
even though this representation is made to one who knows she 
is not, he is liable the same way as if she were his wife. 


Arbitration. 

Arbitration is an investigation and determination of subjects 
of difference between persons involved in dispute, by unofficial 
persons chosen by the parties in question. 

The general rule is that any person capable of making a valid 
contract concerning the subject in dispute may be a party to an 
arbitration. Any matter which the parties may adjust by agree¬ 
ment, or which may be made the subject of a suit at law, may 
be determined by arbitration. Crimes cannot be made the sub¬ 
ject matter of an arbitration. This matter is regulated by statute 
in the different States. 


The Law of Finding. 

The general rule is that the finder has a clear title against 
every one but the owner. The proprietor of a hotel or a shop 

140 




LEGAL ADVICE 


has no right to demand property of others found on his premises. 
Such proprietor may make regulations in regard to lost property 
which will bind their employes, but they cannot bind the public. 
The finder has been held to stand in the place of the owner, so 
that he was permitted to prevail in an action against a person 
who found an article which the plaintiff had originally found, 
but subsequently lost. The police have no special rights in re¬ 
gard to articles lost, unless those rights are conferred by statute. 
Receivers of articles found are trustees for the owner or finder. 
They have no power in the absence of special statute to keep an 
article against the finder, any more than the finder has to retain 
an article against the owner. 


Number of Miles by Water from New York to 


Amsterdam. 

Bermudas. 

Bombay. 

Boston. 

Buenos Ayres .... 

Calcutta. 

Canton . 

Cape Horn. 

Cape of Good Hope 

Charleston. 

Columbia River... 
Constantinople.... 

Dublin. 

Gibraltar. 

Halifax . 

Hamburg. 

Havana. 

Havre. 


3,510 

660 

11,574 

310 

7,110 

12,425 

13,900 

8,115 

6,830 

750 

15,965 

5,140 

3,225 

3,300 

612 

3,775 

1,420 

3,210 


Kingston. 

Lima. 

Liverpool. 

London. 

Madras. 

Naples. 

New Orleans.... 

Panama. 

Pekin. 

Philadelphia. 

Quebec. 

Rio Janeiro. 

Sandwich Islands 
San Francisco... 
St. Petersburg... 

Valparaiso. 

Washington. 

Around the Globe 


1,640 

11,310 

3,210 

3,375 

11,850 

4,330 

2,045 

2,358 

15,325 

240 

1,400 

3,840 

15,300 

15,858 

4,420 

9,750 

400 

25,000 


Dimensions of 

Area, Sq. Miles. Av. Depth. 

Pacific. . .68,000,000 12,780 feet 
Atlantic. .35,000,000 12,060 “ 
Indian.. .25,000,000 10,980 “ 


the Oceans. 

Area, Sq. Miles. 

Antarctic. .8,500,000 
Arctic.5,000,000 


Av. Depth. 

6,000 feet 
5,100 “ 


Inland Seas of the World. 


Name. Area, 

Sq. Miles 

Depth. 

Caspian Sea. . .176,000 

250 

ft. 

Sea of Aral. ... 

30,000 

100 

u 

Dead Sea. 

303 

200 

u 

Lake Baikal. . . 

12,000 

750 

u 

Lake Superior. 

32,000 

1,000 

c i 

Lake Michigan. 

22,400 

1,000 

u 

Lake Huron... 

21,000 

1,000 

u 


Name. Area, 

Sq. Miles. Depth. 

Lake Erie. 

10,815 

204 

ft. 

Lake Ontario . . 

6,300 

336 

u 

Lake Nicaragua 

. 6,000 

300 

u 

Lake Titacaca. . 

, 3,012 

800 

u 

Salt Lake. 

1,875 

1,400 

(l 

Lake Tchad.... 

14,000 

350 

(( 

Lake Lodoga... 

12,000 

1,200 

u 


141 













































BUSINESS AND LEGAL FORMS 


SHORT FORM OF ASSIGNMENT OF WRITTEN INSTRUMENT. 

For Value Received, I do hereby assign, transfer and set over unto C D, 
and his assigns, all my right, title and interest in and to the within written instru¬ 


ment, this .day of.. A.D. 1890. A B. 

ORDINARY BILL OF EXCHANGE, OR DRAFT AT A TIME AFTER 

SIGHT. 

$250. Chicago, January 1, 1890. 


Ten days after sight, pay to the order of W F, two hundred and fifty dollar^ 
for value received, and charge the same to account of 

To M. B. & Co., ) J. H. C. & Co., 

New York City , >• Chicago, 

N. Y. ) Illinois. 

When a draft is payable at sight, commence thus: 

"At sight, pay,” etc. 


GENERAL FORM OF AGREEMENT. 

This Agreement, made this.day of.. one thousand eight hundred 

and.. between A B, of.. county of.. and State of Illinois, of the 

first part, and C D, of.. in said county and State, of the second part— 

Witnesseth, that the said A B, in consideration of the covenants and agree¬ 
ments on the part of the party of the second part hereinafter contained, doth cove¬ 
nant and agree to and with the said C D, that there insert the agreement on the 
part of A B). 

And the said C D, in consideration of the covenants on the part of the party ot 
the first part, doth covenant and agree to and with the said A B, that (here insert 
the agreement on the part of C D). 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the day and 
year first above written. A B. [seal.] 

C D. [seal.] 

COMMON FORM OF BOND FOR PAYMENT OF MONEY. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, A B, of. in the county of 

.. and State of Illinois, am held and firmly bound unto C D, of. , in the 

County of . and State aforesaid, in the sum of.dollars, to be paid to 

the said C D, his executors, administrators and assigns, to which payment, well and 
truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, and every 
of them, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with my seal, the.day of.. A.D. 1890. 

The condition of this obligation is such, that if the above bound A B, his 
heirs, executors and administrators, or either of them, shall well and truly pay, or 
cause to be paid, unto the said C D, his executors, administrators or assigns, the 

just and full sum of ...... dollars, with interest thereon, at the yearly rate of. 

percent, for the same, on or before the.day of.. A.D. 1890, then this 

obligation to be void and of no effect; otherwise to remain in full force. 

A B. [seal.] 

FORM OF BILL OF SALE OF GOODS OR PERSONAL PROPERTY, 

Know all men by these presents, that I, A B, of.in the county of 

.and State of Illinois, in consideration of the sum of.dollars, to me 

paid by C D, of.. at and before the sealing and delivery of these presents, 

the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, have bargained, sold and delivered, 
and by these presents do bargain, sell and deliver unto the said C D, the following 
goods and chattels, towit; (Here insert a bill of particular goods sold or personal 
property). 

To have and to hold the said goods and chattels unto the said C D, his exec¬ 
utors, administrators and assigns, to his and their own proper use and benefit for¬ 
ever. And I, the said A B, for myself and my heirs, executors and administrators, 
do warrant and will defend the said bargained premises unto the said C D., his 
executors, administrators and assigns, from and against all persons whomsoever. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this.day 

of.. A.D. 1830, A B. [seal.] 


142 























FORM OF BOND FOR A DEED. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, A B, of the county of.. 

and State of Illinois, am held and firmly bound unto C D, of the county of. 

and State aforesaid, in the penal sum of.dollars, to be paid unto the said 

E F, his heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, to which payment, well and 
truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, and every 
of them, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with my seal, this.day of.. A.D. 1890. 

The condition of the above obligation is such, that whereas the above bounden 
A B has this day bargained and sold to the said C D, his heirs and assigns, for the 

sum of.dollars, the following described lot or parcel of land, to-wit: (here 

describe the land,) which sum of.dollars is to be paid in manner following: 

...... dollars at the ensealing and delivery hereof, and.dollars in. 

from the date hereof. 

Upon the payment of the said sums being made, at the time and in the manner 
aforesaid, the said A B, for himself, his heirs, executors and assigns, covenants and 
agrees, to and with the said C D, his heirs and assigns, to execute a good and 
sufficient deed of conveyance, in fee simple, free from all incumbrance, with full 
and proper covenants of warranty for the above described premises. 

Now, if the said A B shall well and truly keep, observe and perform his said 
covenants and agreements herein contained, on his part, then this obligation to be 
void; otherwise to remain in full force and virtue. A B. [seal.] 


POWER OF ATTORNEY. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, A B, of.. in the county of 

., and State of Illinois, have made, constituted and appointed, and by these 

presents do make, constitute and appoint, CD, of.. to be my true and lawful 

attorney, for me and in my name, and for my sole use, to (here state the specific 
purposes of the power given), hereby giving and granting unto my said attorney 
full power and authority in the premises to use all lawful means in my name, and 
for my sole benefit for the purposes aforesaid. And generally to do and perform 
all such acts, matters and things as my said attorney shall deem necessary or ex¬ 
pedient for the completion of the authority hereby given, as fully as I might and 
could do if I were personally present; hereby ratifying and confirming all the acts 
of my said attorney or his substitutes, done by virtue of these presents. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this.day 

of.. A.D. 1890. A P [seal.] 

WARRANTY DEED. 

The grantor (here insert name or names and .place of residence), for and in con¬ 
sideration of (here insert consideration) in hand paid, conveys and warrants to (here 
insert the grantee’s name or names) the following described real estate (here insert 
description), situated in the county of ...... in the State of Illinois. 

Dated this. day of .. A.D. 18.. A B. [seal.] 

QUIT CLAIM DEED. 

The grantor (here insert grantor’s name or names and place of residence), for 
the consideration of (here insert consideration), convey and quit claim to (here in¬ 
sert grantee’s name or names) all interest in the following described real estate 
(here insert description), situated in the county of.. in the State of Illinois. 

Dated this.day of.. A.D. 18.. A B. [seal.] 

MORTGAGE. 

The mortgagor (here insert name or names) mortgages and warrants to (here 
insert name or names of mortgagee or mortgagees), to secure the payment of (here 
recite the nature and amount of indebtedness, showing when due and the rate of 
interest, and whether secured by note or otherwise), the following described real 

estate (here insert description thereof), situated in the county of.in the State 

of Illinois. A B. [seal.] 

Dated this.day of A.D. 18.. 

FORM OF CERTIFICATE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT TO DEED OR 

OTHER INSTRUMENT. 

State of (name of State), 1 
County of (name of County), j 

I (here give name of officer and his official title) do hereby certify that (name of 
grantor, and if acknowledged by wife, her name, and add “his wife,”) personally 


143 























BUSINESS AND LEGAL FORMS. 


known to me to be the same person whose name is (or are) subscribed to the fore¬ 
going instrument, appeared before me this day in person, and acknowledged that 
he (she or they) signed, sealed or delivered the said instrument as his (her or their) 
free and voluntary act, for the uses and purposes therein set forth. 

Given under my hand and (private or official, as the case may be) seal, this 
.day of., A.D. 18.. (Signature of officer.) [seal.) 

SHORT FORM OF LEASE. 

This Indenture, made this.day of. A.D. 18.., between A B, 

party of the first part, and C D, party of the second part, witnesseth, that the said 
party of the first part, in consideration of the covenants of the party of the second 
part, hereinafter set forth, do. .by these presents, lease to the party of the second 
part, the following described property, to-wit: (here describe the premises), in the 

county of.. and State of. To have and to hold the same, to the 

party of the second part, from the. day of.. 18.., to the.day 

of.. 18.. And the party of the second part, in consideration of the leasing of 

said premises, covenants and agrees to pay the party of the first part, at.. as 

rent for the same, the sum of.payable as follows, to-wit: (Here set forth 

the terms of payment.) 

And the party of the second part covenants with the party of the first part that 
at the expiration of the term of this lease.. he. .will yield up the premises to the 
party of the first part, without further notice, in as good condition as when the same 
were entered upon by the party of the second part, loss by fire or inevitable accident 

and ordinary wear excepted, and that neither, .he. .nor.legal representatives 

will underlet said premises, or any part thereof, or assign this lease, without the 
written assent of the party of the first part first had thereto. 

And it is further expressly agreed between the parties hereto, that if default 
shall be made in the payment of the rent above reserved, or any part thereof, or any 
of the covenants or agreements herein contained to be kept by the party of the 
second part, it shall be lawful for the party of the first part or.legal represen¬ 

tatives, into and upon said premises, or any part thereof, either with or without pro¬ 
cess of law, to re-enter and re-possess the same at the election of the party of the 
first part, and to distrain for any rent that may be due thereon upon any property 
belonging to the party of the second part. And in order to enforce a forfeiture for 
non-payment of rent, it shall not be necessary to make a demand on the same day 
the rent shall become due, but a failure to pay the same at the place aforesaid, or a 
demand and a refusal to pay on the same day or at any time on any subsequent day, 
shall be sufficient; and after such default shall be made, the party of the second 

part and all persons in possession under.shall be deemed guilty of a forcible 

detainer of said premises under the statute. 

And it is further covenanted and agreed between said parties that (here set 
forth any further stipulation agreed upon.) The covenants herein shall extend to 
and be binding upon the heirs, executors and administrators of the parties to this 
lease. 

Witness the hands and seals of said parties, the day and year first above 
writen. AB. [seal.] 

C D. [seal.] 

FORM OF WILL. 

I, A B, of.. in the county of., and State of Illinois, of the age of 

.years, of sound mind and memory, do make, publish and declare this my 

last will and testament in the manner following: That is to say, 

First, I give and bequeath to (here may be set forth the manner of disposition 
of personal property, and the names of persons and amount to each.) 

Second, I give and devise to (here set forth the manner of disposition of real 
property, and the names of persons to whom devised, concluding as follows:) To 
have and to hold the same and the several tracts and parcels thereof to the said 
.. his heirs and assigns forever. 

And lastly, I do hereby nominate and appoint. to be executor of this my 

last will and testament, hereby revoking all former wills by me made. (Add the 
following clause if desired;) And I do direct that my said executor shall not be 
obliged to give security as such. 


144 





















BUSINESS AND LEGAL FORMS . 


In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal this.day of 

‘“‘ti! u ' I ®’*. , ... , A B. [seal.] 

1 he above instrument, consisting of one sheet (or two sheets, as the case may 

be) was at the date thereof signed, sealed, published and declared by the said A B 
as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request and in 
his presence, and in the presence of each other, have subscribed our names as wit¬ 
nesses thereto (or, “ the above instrument, consisting of one sheet was at the date 
thereof, declared to us by the said A B, the testator therein mentioned, to be his 
last will and testament; and at the same time acknowledged to us, and each of us 
that he had signed and sealed the same, and we therefore, at his request and in his 
presence, and in the presence of each other, signed our names thereto as attesting 

witnesses.)” C D, residing at.. in.county. 

. G H, residing at.in.county. 

. the .oregoing is the general form of will, which can be varied in case of several 
devisees and legatees, according to the facts or as circumstances may require. 

A devisee is one to whom real property is devised in the will. 

A legatee is one to whom personal property is given in the will. 


BILL OF SALE. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, E D, of the town of., county 

ot., State of ....... of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of 

one hundred dollars, lawful money of the United States, to me in hand paid, at or 
before the ensealing and delivery of these presents, by C B, of the second part, the 
receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, have bargained, sold, granted and con¬ 
veyed, and by these presents do bargain, sell, grant and convey unto the said party 
of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns (here set out the 
articles sold), to have and to hold the same unto the said party of the second part, 
his executors, administrators and assigns, forever. And I do for myself, my heirs, 
executors and administrators, covenant and agree to and with the said party of the 
second part, to warrant and defend the said described goods hereby sold unto the 
said party of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns, against all 
and every person and persons whatsoever. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal the.day ot 

. 18 . . ED. [SEAL.) 


Signed, sealed and delivered } 
in the presence of B B. j 

PROMISSORY NOTE. 

$200. Baltimore.. 18.. 

Thirty days after date I promise to pay B B, or order (or bearer), two hundred 
dollars, for value received. B. E. 

JOINT PROMISSORY NOTE. 

$1,050. Memphis,.18.. 

Sixty days after date we jointly promise to pay C D, or order (or bearer), on« 
thousand and fifty dollars, for value received. A C. 

B H 

NOTE PAYABLE ON DEMAND. 

$100. . Mobile. ,18.. 

On demand, for value received, I promise to pay H B, or order (or bearer), one 
hundred dollars (with interest). C. C. 

NOTE PAYABLE AT BANK. 

$300. St. Louis. ,18.. 

Thirty days after date, for value received, I promise to pay C D A, or order (or 
bearer), three hundred dollars, at the German-American Savings Bank. D R S. 

NOTE NOT NEGOTIABLE. _ 


Two months after date I promise to payj H, one hundred dollars, for value 
received. B B. 

NOTE WITH SURETY. 

* 75 - Columbus, Miss.,.. 18.. 

Six months from date I promise to pay E G, or order (or bearer), seventy-five 
dollars, for value received. B B. 

X X. 


1 45 


















NOTE PAYABLE BY INSTALLMENTS. 

$500. Albany,.18.. 

For value received, I promise to pay A C, or order (or bearerj, five hundred 
dollars, in the following manner: One hundred dollars in three months, two hun¬ 
dred dollars in nine months, one hundred dollars in twelve months, and one hun¬ 
dred dollars in fifteen months, from date, with interest on the several sums as they 


may become due. 


W Z. 

DUE BILL. 

$ 5 °- 

Due A W, fifty dollars, with interest from this date. 

Cincinnati,... 

M A. 

DRAFT AT SIGHT. 

$IOO. 

Chicago, ... 



At sight, payj C, or order, one hundred dollars, and charge the same to my 
account CEB. 

To A X. 

BILL OF EXCHANGE. 

$500. New York,. 18.. 

Fifteen days after sight (or as many days as may be agreed upon), pay to the 
order of Mr. B B, five hundred dollars, and charge the same to the account of 
To L M, St. Louis, Mo. C D. 


HIGH WATER 


At the following places may be found for each day by adding 
to, or substracting from, the time of high water at New York the 
hours and minutes given. The * denotes time to be added ; 
the f to be subtracted. The interval between tides is approxi¬ 
mately twelve hours. 

Time. Time. 


Albany, N. Y.*. 9:39 

Annapolis, Md.*. 8:57 

Atlantic City, N.J .f . 0:18 

Baltimore, Md*.10:52 

Block Island, R. I.f. 0:53 

Boston, Mass.*. 3:22 

Bridgeport, Conn.*. 3:04 

Bristol, R. I.f.0:02 

Cape May, N. J.*. 0:12 

Charleston, S. C.f. 0:43 

Eastport, Me.*. 3:01 

Fernandina, Fla.f . 0:19 

Gloucester, Mass.*. 2:57 

Isles of Shoals*. 3:11 

Jacksonville, Fla.*.. 0:36 

Key West, Fla.*. 1:23 

Marblehead, Mass.*,. 3:04 

Nahant, Mass.*. 3:02 

Nantucket, Mass* .4:31 

New Bedford, Mass.*. 0:10 

Newburyport, Mass.*. 3:29 

New Haven, Conn.* . 3:01 

New London, Conn.*. 1:16 


Newport, R. I.f.. 0:22 

Norfolk, Va*.0:56 

Norwich, Conn.*. 2:05 

Old Point Comfort, Va.*. 0:37 

Philadelphia, Pa*. 5:37 

Plymouth, Mass.*.3:12 

Point Lookout, Me.*.4:49 

Portland, Me.*. 3:10 

Portsmouth, N. H*. 3:16 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y.*.... 4:27 

Providence, R. I*. 0:07 

Richmond, Va.*. 8:47 

Rockaway Inlet, N. Y.f. . 0:26 

Rockland, Me.*. 2:55 

Rockport, Mass.*. 2:50 

Salem, Mass.*. 3:05 

Sandy Hook, N.J* . 0:36 

Savannah, Ga.f. 0:49 

Vineyard Haven, Mass*. 3:35 


Washington, D. C*.11:54 

Watch Hill, R. I*. 0:53 

West Point, N. Y*. 2:55 

Wilmington, N. C.*. 0:59 


146 








































Interest Laws and Statutes of Limitations. 


States and Territories. 

Interest Laws. 

Statutes of Limitations. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate 

Allowed by 
Contract. 

Judg¬ 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Years. 

Open 

Acc’nts 

Years, 

Alabama. 

Per Ct. 
8 

Per Cent. 

8 

20 

6 

3 

Arkansas. 

6 

10 

10 

5 

3 

Arizona. 

10 

12 

5 

3 

2 

California. 

7 

Any rate 

5 

4 

2 

Colorado. 

10 

Any rate 

6 

6 

6 

Connecticut. 

6 

t 


6 

6 

Dakota. . . ■. 

7 

Any rate 

20 

6 

6 

Delaware. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

3 

District of Columbia. 

6 

10 

12 

3 

3 

Florida. 

8 

Any rate 

20 

5 

2 

Georgia. 

7 

8 

7 

7 

4 

Idaho. 

10 

18 

6 

6 

3 

Illinois. 

6 

8 

7 

10 

5 

Indiana. 

6 

8 

10 

10 

6 

Iowa. 

6 

10 

10 

10 

5 

Kansas. 

7 

12 

5 

5 

2 

Kentucky. 

6 

8 

15 

15 

5 

Louisiana. 

5 

8 

10 

5 

3 

Maine. 

6 

Any rate 

20 

0 

6 

Maryland. 

6 

6 

12 

3 

3 

Massachusetts. 

6 

Anv rate 

20 

G 

6 

Michigan. 

7 

10 

6 

6 

6 

Minnesota. 

7 

10 

10 

6' 

6 

Mississippi. 

6 

10 

7 

6 

3 

Missouri. 

6 

10 

20 

10 

5 

Montana. 

10 

Any rate 

6 

6 

2 

Nebraska. 

7 

10 

5 

5 

4 

Nevada. 

10 

Any rate 

6 

6 

4 

New Hampshire. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

New Jersey. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

New Mexico . 

6 

12 

15 

6 

4 

New York. 

6 

6* 

20 

6 

6 

North Carolina. 

6 

8 

10 

3 

3 

Ohio. 

6 

8 

5 

15 

6 

Oregon . 

8 

10 

10 

6 

1 

Pennsylvania. 

6 

6 

5 

G 

6 

Rhode Island. 

6 

Any rate 

20 

0 

6 

South Carolina . 

7 

10 

10 

6 

G 


♦New York has by a recent law legalized any rate of interest on call loans ol 
$5,000 or upward, on collateral security, t No usury, but over six per cent, cannot 
be collected by law, 147 




























































interest Laws and Statutes of Limitations.— Concluded. 



Interest Laws. 

Statutes of Limitations. 

States and Territories. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate 

Allowed by 
Contract. 

Judg¬ 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Years. 

Open 

Acc’nts 

Years. 

Tennessee. 

Per Ct. 
6 

Per Cent. 

6 

10 

6 

6 

Texas. 

8 

12 

15 

4 

2 

Utah. 

10 

Any rate 

5 

4 

2 

Vermont... 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Virginia. 

6 

8 

10 

5 

2 

Washington Territory... 

10 

Any rate 

6 

6 

3 

West Virginia. 

6 

t 

10 

10 

5 

Wisconsin. 

7 

10 

20 

6 

6 

Wyoming. 

12 

Any rate 

5 

5 

4 


tNo usury, but over six per cent, cannot be collected by law. 


A TRIP AROUND THE WORLD. 

From Atlantic cities to Omaha, Neb., via the great trunk lines 
of railway—about 1,400 miles, in 2 days and 2 hours. 

From Omaha to San Francisco, Cal., via Union and Central 
Pacific railroads—1,914, in 4 days and 6 hours. 

From San Francisco to Yokohama, Japan, by Pacific Mail line 
of steamers—4,700 miles, in 22 days. 

From Yokohama to Hong Kong, China, by Pacific Mail or 
Peninsular and Oriental steamers—1,600 miles, in 6 days. 

From Hong Kong to Calcutta, India, by Peninsular and Ori¬ 
ental steamers—3,500 miles in 14 days. 

From Calcutta to Bombay, India, by the East Indian and 
Great Indian Peninsular railways—1,450 miles, in 3 days. 

From Bombay to Suez, Egypt, by Peninsular and Oriental 
steamers—3,600 miles, in 14 days. 

From Suez to Alexandria, Egypt, by rail—225 miles, in 10 
hours. 

From Alexandria to Brindisi, Italy, by Peninsular and Oriental 
steamers—850 miles, in 3 days. 

Brindisi to London, Eng., by rail, via Paris or the Rhine—1,200 
miles, in 3 days. 

From London to Liverpool, Eng., by railway—200 miles, in 6 
hours. 

From Liverpool to the Atlantic cities, America, by either of 
the great Atlantic steamship lines—3,000 miles, in 10 daj r s. 

Total distance, 23,639 miles. Time, 82 days. Fare, about 
$1,100, with $4 per day for meals and incidentals; the total cost 
of the trip, $1,500. 


148 


























U. S. MINING LAWS 


Valuable Information for Owners and Locators of Mines. 

HERE papers have once been filed with the Register 
and Receiver, they become a part of the record, and 

can neither be withdrawn nor returned, but must be 

transmitted to the General Land Office. 

An application will be rejected when the description of the premises is erroneous 
or insufficient. 

Application for patent will be rejected because: 

1. The notice was published without the knowledge ot the Register. 

2 . The notice was not published in a newspaper designated as published nearest 
the claim. 

3 . Record title was found defective ; and, 

4 - A previous application had been made for the same premises, which wars 
withdrawn pending a suit in court commenced by the adverse claimant. 

An application for patent will be rejected when the survey does not accurately 
define the boundaries of the claim. 

Whete the claim was not located in accordance with law. 

ivn separate and distinct portions of a claim, application 
for patent may be made by either for that portion of the 
claim owned by him ; but where several parties own un¬ 
divided interests in a mining claim, all should join in 
an application for a patent. 

A person or association may purchase as many placer 
locations as the local law admits, and embrace them all 
in one application for a patent. 

Two or more lodes cannot be embraced in one applica¬ 
tion for a patent except for placer claims embracing two 
or more lodes within their boundaries. 

Paper sworn to before any person purporting to act as 
a deputy for the Register and Receiver, cannot be re¬ 
corded as evidence. 

In all patents for mining claims situated within the in¬ 
terior boundaries of a town site, a clause is inserted “excepting and excluding all 
town property, rights upon the surface, and all houses, buildings, structures, lots, 
blocks, streets, alleys, or other municipal improvements not belonging to the grantee 
herein, and all rights necessary or proper to the occupation, possession and enjoy¬ 
ment of the same.” 

Publication of notice must be made in only one newspaper for the period of sixty 
days. 

Notice must be published ten consecutive weeks in weekly newspapers, and in 
daily newspapers sixty days must elapse between the first and last insertion. 

Where the Register designates the daily issue of a newspaper for publication of 
notices of a mining application for patent, it is not a compliance with law to change 
to the weekly edition of the same paper, without authority of the Register. 

The existence of a salt spring on a tract of land withdraws it from the operation of 
the homestead and pre-emption laws. A hearing for the purpose of proving the 
agricultural character of such lands is not allowed. Land containing valuable de¬ 
posits of slate may be entered under the mining acts. 


Adverse Claims. 

Adverse claimants must file a separate and distinct claim against each applica¬ 
tion which it is alleged conflicts with the premises owned by such adverse claimant 

The papers in an adverse claim once filed cannot be withdrawn, but become part 
of the record. 

When an adverse claim has been filed it cannot be amended so as to embrace a 
larger portion of the premises than that described in the original adverse claim. 

An adverse claim must be made out in proper form and filed in the proper local 
office during the per^d of publication of the application for the patent to be effect* 
ive. 149 











U. S. MINING LA TVS. 

Jt is the duty of the adverse claimant to commence suit in proper form withVl 
the required time, and if he trusts the uncertain medium of the United States mail,, 
he must abide the consequences, should the delay ensue through misfortune or 
accident. Should the failure to commence suit be the result of the corrupt or dis¬ 
honest action of his attorney, the Interior Department cannot redress the wrong. 

An adverse claimant should set forth in detail the facts upon which he bases his 
adverse claim. A statement in general terms, embodying conclusions of law, with¬ 
out stating the facts generally, will not be considered in evidence. 

An adverse claimant should show a compliance with the local laws in recording 
his claim and in regard to expenditures, and shall file a copy of the original notice 
of his location, and show the nature or extent of the conflict alleged. 

An allegation of parties to a suit that they compose the company is sufficient, and 
they are not required to prove that they are the original locators or the identical 
parties who presented the adverse claim. 

Agricultural or Mineral Lands. 

Where land is of little if any value for agricultural purposes, but is essential to 
the proper development of mining claims, it should be disposed of under the Mining 
Act. 

Where lands containing valuable mineral deposits have been included in an agri¬ 
cultural entry, said entry will be canceled at any time prior to issuance ol patent, 
upon satisfactory evidence of the existence of such valuable deposits. 

Where valuable deposits of mineral are discovered upon a tract after the same 
has been entered as agricultural, but before patent has been issued, the parties 
claiming the mine might make application for patent for same, and the agricultural 
entry will be canceled to that portion of the land embraced by aid mining claim. 

Where mineral deposits are discovered on agricultural lai. after patent has 
been issued to an agricultural claimant, they pass with the patent. 

Agricultural college scrip cannot be received in payment for claims. 

Aliens. 

A foreigner may make a mining location and dispose of it, provided he becomes a 
citizen before disposing of the mine. Proof that the party was not a citizen before 
disposing of his claim must be affirmatively shown. 

Locators and intermediate owners other than applicants will not be presumed 
aliens in the absence of allegation or objection prior to issuance of patent. 

The portion of a mining cflaim sold to an alien cannot be patented while such 
owner is an alien ; but on his declaration to become a citizen his right dates back 
to his purchase, and he may thereupon secure a United States patent for his claim. 

Tunnels. 

There is ho authority of law for a tunnel location 3,000 by 1,500 feet. A proper 
location is the width of the tunnel for 3,000 feet. 

There is no provision of law for patenting tunnel locations, but lodes discovered 
In running a tunnel may be patented in like manner as other lodes. 

When a lode is struck or discovered for the first time in running a tunnel, the 
tunnel owners have the option of recording their claim of 1,500 feet all on one side 
of the point of discovery or intersection, or partly on one side thereof and partly on 
the other. 

Prospecting for blind lodes is prohibited on the line of a located tunnel, while the 
tunnel is in progress, but other parties are in no way debarred from prospecting for 
blind lodes or running tunnels, so long as they keep without the line of such tunnel. 

The right is granted to tunnel owners to 1,500 feet of each blind lode not pre¬ 
viously known to exist, which may be discovered in their tunnel. 

Cross Ledges. 

Revised Statutes. Section 2336. Where two or more ledges cross or intersect 
each other, priority of title shall govern, and such prior location shall be entitled to 
all ore or mineral contained within the space of intersection, but the subsequent 

150 


THE LAW OF COPrFIGHT. 

Ideation shall have the right of way through the space of intersection for the puN 
pose of the convenient working of the mine. And where two or more veins unite, 
the oldest or prior location shall take the vein below the point of union, including 
all the space of the intersection. 


THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 

I. A printed copy of the title (besides the two copies to be 

deposited after publication)^ of the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composi¬ 
tion, engraving, cut, print or photograph, or a description of the painting, drawing, 
chromo, statue, statuary or model or design for a work ofthe fine arts, for which copy¬ 
right is desired, must be sent by mail or otherwise, prepaid, addressed “Librarian 
of Congress, Washington, D. C.” This must be done before the publication of the 
book or other article. The applicant must state distinctly the name and resi¬ 
dence of the claimant, and whether copyright is claimed as author, designer 
or proprietor. The printed title required may be a copy of the title page 
of such publications as have title pages. In other cases, the title must be printed 
expressly for copyright entry, with name of claimant of copyright. The style 
of type is immaterial, and the print of a typewriter will be accepted. But a sepa¬ 
rate title is required for each entry, and each title must be printed on paper as large 
as commercial note. The title of a periodical must include the date and number. 

2. The legal fee for recording each copyright claim is 50 cents, and for a copy 
of this record (or certificate of copyright) an additional fee of 50 cents is required. 
Certificates covering more than one entry are not issued. 

3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two complete 
copies of the best edition issued must be sent, to perfect the copyright,' with the 
address “Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.” The postage must be pre¬ 
paid, or else the publication inclosed in parcels covered by printed Penalty Labels, 
furnished by the Librarian, in which case they will come free by mail, without 
limit of weight. Without the deposit of copies above required the copyright is 
void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred. 

4. No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every copy pub¬ 

lished, on the title page or the page following, if it be a book ; or, if a map, chart, 
musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, chromo, 
statue, statuary or model design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, 
by inscribing upon some portion thereof, or on the substance on which the same is 
mounted, the following words, viz: “Entered according to act 0/ Congress, in the 

year -, by - , in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington,” 

or, at the option of the person entering the copyright, the words: “ Copyright, 
iS—, by -.” 

The law imposes a penalty of $ 100 upon any person who has not obtained a copy¬ 
right who shall insert the notice “Entered according to act of Congress,” or "Copy¬ 
right,” etc., or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other article. 

5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dramatize his own work. 
In this case, notice should be given by printing the words "Right of translation 
reserved,” or "All rights reserved,” below the notice of copyright entry, and noti¬ 
fying the Librarian of Congress of such reservation, to be entered upon the record. 

6. The original term of copyright runs for twenty-eight years. Within six 
months before the end of that time, the author or designer, or his widow or children, 
may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making forty-two years 
in all. 

7. The time within which any work entered for copyright may be issued from 
the press is not limited by any law or regulation, but depends upon the discretion 
of the proprietor. A copyright may be secured for a projected work as well as for 
a completed one. But the law provides for no caveat, or notice of interference— 
only for actual entry of title. 

8 . A copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but such as¬ 
signment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty 

151 






PA TEN TS A ND TRA DEM A RKS. 


days from its date. The fee for this record and certificate is $i, and for a certified 
copy of any record of assignment $i. 

9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be 
furnished, under seal, at the rate of 50 cents each. 

10. In the case of books published in more than one volume, or of periodicals 
published in numbers, or of engravings, photographs or other articles published 
with variations, a copyright is to be entered for each volume or part of a book, or 
numbei of a periodical, or variety, as to style, title or inscription, of any other 
article. But a book published serially in a periodical, under the same general title, 
requires only one entry. To complete the copyright on such a work, two copies of 
each serial part, as well as of the complete work (if published separately), must be 
deposited. 

11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or design intended to 
be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to prevent infringement by copying, 
engraving, or vending such design, a definite description must accompany the ap¬ 
plication for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as "cabinet 
size,” should be mailed to the Librarian of Congress within ten days from the com¬ 
pletion cf the work or design. 

12. Copyrights cannot be granted upon trademarks, nor upon mere names of 
companies or articles, nor upon prints or labels intended to be used with any article 
of manufacture. If protection for such names or labels is desired, application must 
be made to the Patent Office. 

13. Citizens or residents of the United States only are entitled to copyright. 


THE LAW OF TRADEMARKS. 

Any person, firm or corporation can obtain protection for any 

lawful trademark by complying with the following: 

1. By causing to be recorded in the Patent office the name, residence and place 
of business of persons desiring the trademark. 

2. The class of merchandise and description of the same. 

3. A description of the trademark itself with fac-similes. 

4. The length of time that the said mark has already been used. 

5. By payment of the required fee— $ 6.00 for labels and $ 25 for trademarks. 

6. By complying with such regulations as may be prescribed by the commis¬ 
sioner of patents. 

7. A lawful trademark must consist of some arbitrary word (not the name of a 
person or place), indicating or not the use or nature of the thing to which it is ap¬ 
plied ; of some designation symbol, or of both said word and symbol. 


HOW TO OBTAIN A PATENT. 

Patents are issued in the name of the United States, and under 
the seal of the Patent Office, to any person who has invented or 
discovered any new and useful art, machine, manufacture or 
composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement 
thereof, not known or used by others in this country, and not. 
patented or described in any printed publication in this or any 
foreign country, before his invention or discovery thereof, and 
not in public use or on sale for more than two years prior to his 
application, unless the same is proved to have been abandoned ; 
and by any person who, by his own industry, genius, efforts and 
expense has invented and produced any new and original design 
for a manufacture, bust, statue, alto-relievo, or bas-relief; any 

152 




HOW TO OBTAIN A PATENT. 


new and original design for the printing of woolen, silk, cotton 
or other fabrics ; any new and original impression, ornament, 
pattern, print or picture to be printed, painted, cast or otherwise 
placed on or worked into any article of manufacture ; or any 
new, useful and original shape or configuration of any article of 
manufacture, the same not having been known or used by others 
before his invention or production thereof, or patented or 
described in any printed publication, upon payment of the fees 
required by law and other due proceedings had. 

Every patent contains a grant to the patentee, his heirs or assigns, for the term 
of seventeen years, of the exclusive right to make, use and vend the invention or 
discovery throughout the United States and the Territories, referring to the specifi¬ 
cation for the particulars thereof. 

If it appear that the inventor, at the time of making his application, believed 
himself to be the first inventor or discoverer, a patent will not be refused on account 
of the invention or discovery, or any part thereof, having been known or used in 
any foreign country before his invention or discovery thereof, if it had not been before 
patented or described in any printed publication. 

Joint inventors are entitled to a joint patent; neither can claim one separately. 
Independent inventors of distinct and independent improvements in the same 
machine cannot obtain a joint patent for their separate inventions; nor does the 
fact that one furnishes the capital and another makes the invention entitle them to 
make application as joint inventors; but in such case they may become joint 
patentees. 

The receipt of letters patent from a foreign government will not prevent the in¬ 
ventor from obtaining a patent in the United States, unless the invention shall have 
been introduced into public use in the United States more than two years prior to 
the application. But every patent granted for an invention which bas been pre¬ 
viously patented by the same inventor in a foreign country will be so limited as to 
expire at the same time with the foreign patent, or, if there be more than one, at the 
same time with the one having the shortest unexpired term, but in no case will it be 
in force more than seventeen years. 

Applications. 

Application for a patent must be made in writing to the Commissioner of Patents. 
The applicant must also file in the Patent Office a written description of the same, 
and of the manner and process of making, constructing, compounding and using it, 
in such full, clear, concise and exact terms as to enable any person skilled in the 
art or science to which it appertains, or with which it is most nearly connected, to 
make, construct, compound and use the same ; and in case of a machine, he must 
explain the principle thereof, and the best mode in which he has contemplated ap¬ 
plying that principle, so as to distinguish it from other inventions, and particularly 
point out and distinctly claim the part, improvement or combination which he 
claims as his invention or discovery. The specification and claim must be signed 
by the inventor and attested by two witnesses. 

When the nature of the case admits of drawings, the applicant must furnish one 
copy signed by the inventor or his attorney in fact, and attested by two witnesses, 
to be filed in the Patent Office. In all cases which admit of representation by 
model, the applicant, if required by the Commissioner, shall furnish a model of 
convenient size to exhibit advantageously the several parts of his invention or dis¬ 
covery. 

The applicant shall make oath that he verily believes himself to be the original 
and first inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, manufacture, composition or 
improvement for which he solicits a patent; that he does not know and does not 
believe that the same was ever before known or used, and shall state of what coun¬ 
try he is a citizen. Such oath may be made before any person within the United 
States authorized by law to administer oaths, or, when the applicant resides in a 
foreign country, before any minister, charge d’affaires, consul or commercial agent, 

153 


HOW TO OBTAIN A PATENT. 


holding commission under the Government of the United States, or before any 
notary public of the foreign country in which the applicant may be. 

On the filing of such application and the payment of the fees required by law, if, 
on such examination, it appears that the claimant is justly entitled to a patent 
under the law, and that the same is sufficiently useful and important, the Commis¬ 
sioner will issue a patent therefor. 

Assignments. 

Every patent or any interest therein shall be assignable in law by an instrument 
in writing; and the patentee or his assigns or legal representatives may, in like 
manner, grant and convey an exclusive right under his patent to the whole or any 
specified part of the United States. 

Reissues. 

A reissue is granted to the original patentee, his legal representatives, or the as¬ 
signees of the entire interest when, by reason of a defective or insufficient specifica¬ 
tion, or by reason of the patentee claiming as his invention or discovery more than 
he had a right to claim as new, the original patent is inoperative or invalid, pro¬ 
vided the error has arisen from inadvertance, accident or mistake, and without any 
fraudulent or deceptive intention. In the cases of patents issued and assigned prior 
to July 8, 1870, the applications for reissue may be made by the assignees ; but in 
the cases of patents issued or assigned since that date, the applications must be 
made and the specifications sworn to by the inventors, if they be living. 

Caveats. 

A caveat, under the patent law, is a notice given to the office of the caveator’s 
claim as inventor, in order to prevent the grant of a patent to another for the same 
alleged invention upon an application filed during the life of the caveat without 
notice to the caveator. 

Any citizen of the United States who has made a new invention or discovery, and 
desires further time to mature the same, may, on payment of a fee of $10, file in the 
Patent Office a caveat setting forth the object and the distinguishing characteristics 
of the invention, and praying protection of his right until he shall have matured 
his invention. Such caveat shall be filed in the confidential archives of the office 
and preserved in secrecy, and shall be operative for the term of one year from the 
filing thereof. 

An alien has the same privilege, if he has resided in the United States one year 
next preceding the filing of his caveat, and has made oath of his intention to be¬ 
come a citizen. 

The caveat must comprise a specification, oath, and, when the nature of the case 
admits of it, a drawing, and, like the application, must be limited to a single inven¬ 
tion or improvement. 

Fees. 

Fees must be paid in advance, and are as follows: On filing each original appli¬ 
cation for a patent, $15. On issuing each original patent, $20. In design cases: 
For three years and six months, $10 ; for seven years, $15 ; for fourteen years, $30. 
On filing each caveat, $10. On every application for the reissue of a patent, $30. On 
filing each disclaimer, $10. For certified copies of patents and other papers, in¬ 
cluding certified printed copies, 10 cents per hundred words. For recording every 
assignment, agreement, power of attorney or other paper, of three hundred words 
or under, $1 ; of over three hundred and under one thousand words, $2; of over 
one thousand words, $3. For copies of drawings, the reasonable cost of making 
them. 


Greatest Known Depth of the Ocean. 

The greatest known depth of the ocean is midway between the 
Islands of Tristan d’Acunha and the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. The bottom 
was here reached at a depth of 46,236 feet, or eight and three-fourths miles, 
exceeding by more than 13,000 feet the height of Mt. Hercules, the loftiest mountain 
in the world. The average depth of all the oceans is from 2,000 to 3,000 fathoms. 

154 



PRINCIPAL POINTS OF CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. 


Congress must meet at least once a year. 

One State cannot undo the acts of another. 

Congress may admit as many new States as desired. 

The Constitution guarantees every citizen a speedy trial by 
jury. 

A State cannot exercise a power which is vested in Congress 
alone. 

One State must respect the laws and legal decisions of an¬ 
other. 

Congress cannot pass a law to punish a crime already com¬ 
mitted. 

U. S. Senators are chosen h}' the legislatures of the States by 
joint ballot. 

Bills for revenue can originate only in the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives. 

A person committing a felony in one State cannot find refuge 
in another. 

The Constitution of the United States forbids excessive bail 
or cruel punishment. 

Treaties with foreign countries are made by the President and 
ratified by the Senate. 

In the U. S. Senate Rhode Island or Nevada has an equal 
voice with New York. 

When Congress passes a bankruptcy law it annuls all the 
State laws on that subject. 

Writing alone does not constitute treason against the United 
States. There must be an overt act. 

Congress cannot lay any disabilities on the children of a per¬ 
son convicted of crime or misdemeanor. 

The Territories each send a delegate to Congress, who has 
the right of debate, but not the right to vote. 

The Vice-President, who ex-officio presides over the Senate, 
has no vote in that body except on a tie ballot. 

An act of Congress cannot become a law over the President’s 
veto except on a two-thirds vote of both houses. 

An officer of the Government cannot accept title of nobility, 
order or honor without the permission of Congress. 

Money lost in the mails cannot be recovered from the Govern¬ 
ment. Registering a letter does not insure its contents. 

It is the House of Representatives that may impeach the 
President for any crime, and the Senate hears the accusation. 

If the President holds a bill longer than ten days while Con¬ 
gress is still in session, it becomes a law without his signature. 

Silver coin of denominations less than $i is not a legal tender 

155 



POINTS OF CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. 

for more than $ 5 . 00 . Copper and nickel coin is not legal 
tender. 

The term of a Congressman is two years, but a Congressman 
may be re-elected to as many successive terms as his constituents 
may wish. 

Amendments to the Constitution require a two-thirds vote of 
each house of Congress and must be ratified by at least three- 
fourths of the States. 

When the militia is called out in the service of the General 
Government, they pass out of the control of the various States 
under the command of the President. 

The President of the United States must be 35 years of age; a U. 
S. Senator, 30 ; a Congressman, 25. The President must have 
been a resident of the United States fourteen years. 

A grand jury is a secret tribunal, and may hear only one side 
of a case. It simply decides whether there is good reason to 
hold for trial. It consists of twenty-four men, twelve of whom 
may indict. 

A naturalized citizen cannot become President or Vice-Presi¬ 
dent of the United States. A male child born abroad of Ameri¬ 
can parents has an equal chance to become President with one 
born on American soil. 


Curious By-Products from Coal.— The Pittsburgh Dis¬ 
patch mentionssome chemical developments from coal that are new. There are a 
good many products from coal that the majority of the people know nothing of. 
Their number will go into the thousands, and research into this particular branch 
of inorganic chemistry is bringing new and rich rewards to scientists each year. One 
of the hydrocarbons distinctly produced from coal tar is benzole. This is the base 
of magenta red and blue coloring matters and of the oil of bitter almonds. This oil 
formerly came entirely from the vegetable product from which it takes its name but 
now it is, to a large extent, made from benzole, and a chemically pure product is 
secured. The vegetable oil of bitter almonds contains a certain amount of prussic 
acid, which is a poisonous substance. Toluene, or tolulo, is another product from 
coal tar, which is the base of a great many chemicals. Benzoic acid, which used to 
be made almost entirely from plants, is now readily made from toluene. Carbolic 
acid is another product of tolulo. The latter is a colorless fluid with a smell very 
much like crude petroleum, while carbolic acid and salicylic acid, two of its prod¬ 
ucts, are far from being sweet-smelling compounds. Yet this same tolulo is the 
basis of a number of very fragrant products. Wintergreen oil, much purer than from 
the plant, and generally preferred by confectioners and others who use it, is one ; 
oil of cinnamon, cinnamic acid, and oil of cloves are among the middle products 
which are in great demand. As yet th e products of coal tar have not been made use 
of for medicines to any great extent, except as disinfectants, but, from experiments 
now going on, it is hoped to produce pure quinine from chinolene, one of the coal- 
tar products, and scientists say that it is only a question of time when all alkaloids 
known, and probably others not now known, will be made from coal tar. It would 
take a good-sized book to even begin to give an idea of the commercial products 
alone of coal tar. Nearly every known color, except cochineal red and indigo blue, 
is made, and the latter was produced after nine years of experiment by the eminent 
German scientist Byer of Munich, but the manufacture w^asso expensive that it has 
never been done except for scientific purposes. The logwood and madder dyes ot 
our grandmothers’ days are rarely seen in the market now, owing to the cheapness 
with which they are manufactured. Red ink, which formerly was made almost ex¬ 
clusively from carmine, is now made from eosine, one of the numerous coal-tar 
progeny. > 150 



VOTING AND NATURALIZATION. 


The right to vote comes from the State, and is a State 
gift. Naturalization is a Federal right, and is a gift of the 
, ^ ^ ^t ( te. In nearly one-half the Union 

aliens who have declared intentions vote and have the right to 
vote equally with naturalized or native-born citizens. In the 
other half only actual citizens may vote. The Federal natural¬ 
ization laws apply to the whole Union alike, and provide that no 
alien male may be naturalized until after five years’ residence. 
Even after five years’ residence and due naturalization he is not 
entitled to vote unless the laws of the State confer the privilege 
upon him, and he may vote in one State (Minnesota) four 
months after landing, if he has immediately declared his inten¬ 
tion, under United States law, to become a citizen. 

Naturalization. 

The conditions under and the manner in which an alien may 
be admitted to become a citizen of the United States are pre¬ 
scribed by Sections 2165-74 of the Revised Statutes of the 
United States. 

Declaration of Intention. —The alien must declare upon oath before a Circuit 
or District Court of the United States, or a District or Supreme Court of the Ter¬ 
ritories, or a court of record of any of the States having common law jurisdiction, 
and a seal and clerk, two years at least prior to his admission, that it is, bona fide, 
his intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all 
allegiance and fidelitylto any foreign prince or State, and particularly to the one of 
which he maybe at the time a citizen or subject. 

Oath on Application for Admission. —He must, at the time of his application 
to be admitted, declare on oath, before some one of the courts above specified, 
“that he will support the Constitution of the United States, and that he absolutely 
and entirely renounces and abjures all allegiance and fidelity to every foreign 
prince, potentate. State or soveieignty, and particularly, by name, to the prince, 
potentate. State or sovereignty of w hich he was before a citizen or subject," which 
proceedings must be recorded by the clerk of the court. 

Conditions for Citizenship.— If it shall appear to the satisfaction of the court 
to which the alien has applied that he has resided continuously within the United 
States for at least five years, and within the State or Territory where such court is 
at the time held one year at least; and that during that time “he has behaved as a 
man of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the 
United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same,” he 
will be admitted to citizenship. 

Titles of Nobility. —If the applicant has borne any hereditary title or order of 
nobility, he must make an express renunciation of the same at the time of his ap¬ 
plication. 

Soldiers. —Any alien of the age of twenty-one years and upwards, who has 
been in the armies of the United States and has been honorably discharged there¬ 
from, may become a citizen on his petition, without any previous declaration of in¬ 
tention, provided that he has resided in the United States at least one year previous 
to his application, and is of good moral character. 

Minors. —Any alien under the age of twenty-on 1 years who has resided in the 
United States three years next preceding his arriving; at that age, and who has con¬ 
tinued to reside therein to the time he may make application to be admitted a 
citizen thereof, may, after he arrives at the age of twenty-one years, and after he 
has resided five years within the United States, including the three years of his 
minority, be admitted a citizen ; but he must make a declaration on oath and prove 

157 



THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION. 

to the satisfaction of the court that for two years next preceding it has been his 
Iona fide intention to become a citizen. 

Children of Naturalized Citizens. —The children of persons who have been 
duly naturalized, being under the age of sixteen years at the time of the naturaliza¬ 
tion of their parents, shall, if dwelling in the United States, be considered as citi¬ 
zens thereof. 

Citizens’ Children Who Are Born Abroad. —The children of persons who now 
are or have been citizens of the United States are, though born out of the limits and 
jurisdiction of the United States, considered as citizens thereof. 

Protection Abroad to Naturalized Citizens. —Section 2000 of the Revised 
Statutes of the United States declares that “all naturalized citizens of the United 
States while in foreign countries are entitled to and shall receive from this Govern¬ 
ment the same protection of persons and property which is accorded to native-born 
citizens.” 


When a Man Becomes of Age. 

The question sometimes arises whether a man is entitled to 
vote at an election held on the day preceding the twenty-first 
anniversary of his birth. Blackstone, in his Commentaries, 
book 1, page 463, says : “Full age in male or female is 21 years, 
which age is completed on the day preceding the anniversary of 
a person’s birth, who, till that time, is an infant, and so styled in 
law.” The late Chief Justice Sharswood, in his edition of Black- 
stone’s Commentaries, quotes Christian’s note on the above as 
follows : “If he is born on the 16th day of February, 1608, he 
is of age to do any legal act on the morning of the 15th of Feb¬ 
ruary, 1629, though he may not have lived twenty-one years by 
nearly forty-eight hours. The reason assigned is that in law 
there is no fraction of a day ; and if the birth were on the last 
second of one day and the act on the first second of the preced¬ 
ing day twenty-one years after, then twenty-one years would be 
complete ; and in the law it is the same whether a thing is done 
upon one moment of the day or another.” The same high 
authority (Sharswood) adds in a note of his own : “A person 
is of full age the day before the twenty-first anniversary of his 
birthday.” 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION. 

The President and Vice-President of the United States are 
chosen by officials termed “Electors” in each State, who are, 
under existing State laws, chosen by the qualified voters thereof 
by ballot, on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in Novem¬ 
ber in every fourth year preceding the year in which the Presi¬ 
dential term expires. 

The Constitution of the United States prescribes that each 
State shall “appoint,” in such manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of 

158 




THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION. 

Senators and Representatives to which the State may be en¬ 
titled in Congress ; but no Senator or Representative or person 
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States shall 
be an elector. The Constitution requires that the day when 
electors are chosen shall be the same throughout the United 
States. At the beginning of our Government most of the elect¬ 
ors were chosen by the Legislatures of their respective States, 
the people having no direct participation in their choice; and one 
State, South Carolina, continued that practice down to the break¬ 
ing out of the Civil War. But in all the States now the Presi¬ 
dential electors are, under the direction of State laws, chosen by 
the people. 

The manner in which the chosen electors meet and ballot for 
a President and Vice-President of the United States is provided 
for in Article XII. of the Constitution. The same article pre¬ 
scribes the mode in which the Congress shall count the ballots 
of the electors, and announce the result. 

The procedure of the two houses, in case the returns of the 
election of electors from any State are disputed, is provided 
in the “Electoral Count” Act, passed by the Forty-ninth Con¬ 
gress. 

The Constitution defines who is eligible for President of the 
United States, as follows : 

No person except a natural-born citizen or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution 
shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any 
person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to 
the age of 35 years. 

The qualifications for Vice-President are the same. 

The “Electoral Count” Act directs that the Presidential elect¬ 
ors shall meet and give their votes on the second Monday in 
January next following their election. It fixes the time when 
Congress shall be in session to count the ballots as the second 
Wednesday in February succeeding the meeting of the electors. 

The Presidential succession is fixed by chapter 4 of the acts of 
the Forty-ninth Congress, first session. In case of the removal, 
death, resignation or inability of both the President and Vice- 
President, then the Secretary of State shall act as President 
until the disability of the President or Vice-President is removed 
or a President is elected. If there be no Secretary of State, then 
the Secretary of the Treasury will act; and the remainder of 
the order of succession is : The Secretary of War, Attorney- 
General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, and Secre¬ 
tary of the Interior. The acting President must, upon taking 
office, convene Congress, if not at the time in session, in extra¬ 
ordinary session, giving twenty days’ notice. 

159 


Qualifications of Voters in the States. 



Requirement as to 

Residence in 


States. 




Registration. 

Citizenship. 

State 

Co’ty 

Pre- 







CINCT. 


Alabama.. . 

Citizen or declared intent.. 

ly 

3 m 

1 m 

Legis. may regulate 

Arkansas.. . 

Citizen or declared intent.. 

ly 

6 m 

1 m 

Prohib. as bar to suf 

California .. 

Actual citizens. 

1 y 

90 d 

• • • • 

30 d 

Required by law 

Req. by constitution 

Colorado.... 

Citizen or declared intent.. 

6 m 

Connecticut. 

Actual citizens . 

ly 

6 m 

6 m 

Required by law 

No reg. required 

Delaware.. . 

Actual county taxpayers... 

1 y 

1 m 

Florida .... 

J U. S. citizens or de- ) 
j dared intention.j 

ly 

6 m 

.... 

Req. by constitutio 

Georgia .... 
Illinois. 

Actual citizens. 

ly 

ly 

6 m 

6 m 
90 d 
60 d 


Legis. may regulate 
Required by law 

No law for reg 

Actual citizens. 

30 d 
30 d 

Indiana... . 

Citizen or declared intent.. 

Iowa. 


6 m 

60 d 


Required by law 

Req. in cities only 

No reg. required 

Kansas. 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

6 m 

30 d 

Kentucky .. Citizen or declared intent. . 

2y 

ly 

60 d 

Louisiana... 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

ly 

6 m 

30 d 

Legis may regulate 

Maine . 

Actual citizens . 

3 m 



Required by law 
Req. by constitution 
Required by law 
Required by law 

Maryland. . 
Massach ’ tts 

Actual citizens . 

i y 

6 m 


Citizens . 

1 y 

6 m 

10 d 

Michigan. .. 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

3 m 

• • • • 

Minnesota.. 

Citizen or declared intent.. 

4 m 

• • • • 

10 d 

Required by law 

Mississippi.. 

Missouri. ... 

Actual citizens . 

6 m 

1 m 

60 d 


Req. by constitution 
j Req. by constitu- 
| tion in cities only 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

ly 

• • • • 

Nebraska . . 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

6 m 

• • • • 

.... 

Required by law 

Nevada .... 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

6 m 

30 d 

.... 

Req. by constitution 

N. Ham’sh’e 

Actual citizens . 



6 m 

Required by law 
Req. cities of 10,000 
Req. cities of 10,000 
Req. by constitution 
No reg. required 

New Jersey. 
N ew York. . 

Actual citizens . 

1 V 

5 m 

4 m 

90 d 

Actual citizens . 

ly 

ly 

1 V 

30 d 

N. Carolina. 

Actual citizens . 

Ohio . 

Actual citizens . 


Oregon ... . 
Pennsylv’n’a 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

6 m 



Actual citizens . . 

ly 

• • • • 

2 m 

Req. by constitution 

R. Island.. . 

Actual tax-paying citizens.. 

ly 


6 m 

Required by law 

S. Carolina. 

Actual citizens . 

ly 

1 y 

60 d 

6 m 

6 m 


Req. by constitution 
No reg. required 
Prohibited 

'Tennessee . . 

Actual citizens . 


Texas . 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

1 y 

6 m 

Vermont . . . 

A ctnal citizens . 

1 V 

Required by law 
Required by law 

Virginia.. .. 
W. Virginia. 
Wisconsin... 

Actual citizens . 

1 y 


3 m 


ly 

ly 

60 d 

Citizen or declared intent. . 

• • • • 

Required by law 


State elections are held in the various States as follows: Ala¬ 
bama and Kentucky, first Monday in August; Arkansas, first 
Monday in September; Georgia, first Wednesday in October; 
Louisiana, Tuesday after third Monday in April; Maine, second 
Monday in September; Oregon, first Monday in June; Rhode 
Island, first Wednesday in April; Vermont, first Tuesday in 
September. All others are on Tuesday after first Monday in 
November. State Presidential elections are all on Tuesday after 
first Monday in November. 

Roderigo de Triana was the name of the sailor with Col¬ 
umbus who first saw the “New World”—at 2 a. m., Oct. 12 , 
1492 , on board the Pinta. 


160 


















































THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 

What is termed the Australian Ballot System, the professed 
purposes of which are to secure the secrecy of the ballot and 
prevent the intimidation or corrupting of the voter, was prac¬ 
tically introduced into the United States recently by its adoption 
by law in the State of Massachusetts and the city of Louisville, 
Ky. Agitation for the adoption of this plan of voting is now 
rife in many States. 

Its substantial requirements are as follows : Ballots are to be 
provided at public expense ; none but these ballots are to be 
used ; on them are to be printed the names of all candidates 
w r ho are nominated either by conventions or petitions a short 
period prior to the election ; the ballots are to be distributed 
only by sworn ballot clerks, at the polls, to voters, and for actual 
and immediate use in voting; the voter is allowed five minutes 
in which to retire into a booth conveniently arranged, where he 
secretly marks his choice of candidates upon the face of the bal¬ 
lot, or, if he prefers, writes the names of candidates of his own 
nomination in place of those whose names are already printed ; 
having done this he proceeds directly to the ballot-box, and, 
without exposing the face of the ballot, or communicating with 
any one, deposits the ballot as his vote. For the benefit of the 
blind and illiterate, such a voter is permitted to select one of the 
two ballot clerks, who, under oath of fidelity and secrecy, assists 
him to mark his ballot. 


POPULAR VOTE. 

For Presidential candidates from 1824 to and including 1888 . 
Prior to 1824 electors were chosen by the Legislatures of the 
different States. 


1824—J. Q. Adams had 105,321 to 155,- 
872 for Jackson, 44,282 for Crawford, 
and 46,587 for Clay. Jackson over 
Adams, 50,551. Adams less than 
combined vote of others, 140,869. Of 
the whole vote Adams had 29.92 per 
cent., Jackson 44.27, Clay 13.23, 
Crawford 13.23. Adams elected by 
House of Representatives. 

1828—Jackson had 647,231 to 509,097 for 
J. Q. Adams. Jackson’s majority, 
138,134. Of the whole vote Jackson 
had 55.97 per cent., Adams 44.03. 

1832—Jackson had 687,502 to 530,189 
for Clay, and 33,108 for Floyd and 
Wirt combined. Jackson’s majority, 
124,205. Of the whole vote Jackson 
had 54.96 per cent.. Clay 42.39, and 
the others combined 2.65. 

1836—Van Buren had 761,54910736,656, 
the combined vote for Harrison, 


White, Webster and Maguin. Van 
Buren’s majority, 24,893. Of the 
whole vote Van Buren had 50.83 per 
cent., and the others combined 49.17. 

1840—Harrison had 1,275,017 to 1,128,- 
702 for Van Buren, and 7,059 foi 
Birney. Harrison’s majority, 139,256. 
Of the whole vote Harrison had 52.89 
per cent., Van Buren 46,82 and Bir¬ 
ney .29. 

1844—Polk had 1,337,243 to 1,299,068 
for Clay and 62,300 for Birney. Polk 
over Clay, 38,175. Polk less than 
others combined, 24,125. Of the 
whole vote Polk had 49.55 per cent.. 
Clay 48.14 and Birney 2.21. 

1848—Taylor had 1,360,101 to 1,220,544 
for Cass, and 291,263 for Van Buren. 
Taylor over Cass, 139,577. Taylor 
less than others combined, 151,706. Of 
the whole vote Taylor had 47.36 per 


161 




Popular Vote 

cent., Cass 42.50 and Van Buren 
10.14. 

4852—Pierce had 1,601,474 to 1,386,578 
for Scott and 156,149 for Hale. Pierce 
over all, 58,747. Of the whole vote 
Pierce had 50.90 per cent., Scott 44.10 
and Hale 4 97. 

1856—Buchanan had 1,838,169 to 1,341,- 
264 for Fremont and 874,534 for Fill¬ 
more. Buchanan over Fremont, 496,- 
905. Buchanan less than combined 
vote of others, 377,629. Of the whole 
vote Buchanan had 45.34 per cent., 
Fremont 33.09 and Filimore 21.57. 

i860—Lincoln had 1,866,352 to 1,375,- 
157 for Douglas, 845,763 for Brecken¬ 
ridge and 589,581 for Bell. Lincoln 
over Breckenridge, 491,195. Lincoln 
less than Douglas and Breckenridge 
ccwnbined, 354,568. Lincoln lessthan 
combined vote of all others, 944,149. 

Of the whole vote Lincoln had 39.91 
per cent., Douglas 29.40,Breckenridge 
18.08 and Bell 12.61. 

1864—Lincoln had 2,216,067 to i»8o8,- 
725 for McClellan (eleven States not 
voting, viz: Alabama, Arkansas, 
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Missis¬ 
sippi, North Carolina, South Caro¬ 
lina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia). 
Lincoln’s majority, 408,342. Of the 
whole vote Lincoln had 55.06 per 
cent, and McClellan 44.94. 

1868—Grant had 3,015071 to 2,709,613 . 
for Seymour (three States not voting, 
viz: Mississippi, Texasand Virginia). 
Grant’s majority, 305,458. Of the 
whole vote Grant had 52.67 per cent, 
and Seymour 47.33. 

1872—Grant had 3,597,070 to 2,834,079 
for Greeley, 29,408 for O’Conor and 
5,608 for Black. Grant’s majority, 
729,975. Of the whole vote Grant 
had 55.63 per cent., Greeley 43.83, 
O’Conor .15, Black .09. 

1876—Hayes had 4,033,950 to 4,284,885 
for Tilden, 81,740 for Cooper, 9,522 
for Smith and 2,636 scattering. Til- 


,— Concluded. 

den’s majority over Hayes, 250,935. 
Tilden’s majority of the entire vote 
cast, 157,037. Hayes less than the 
combined vote of others, 344,833. Of 
the whole vote cast Hayes had 47.95 
per cent., Tilden. 50.94, Cooper .97, 
Smith .11, scattering .03. 

1880—Garfield had 4,449,053 to 4,442,- 
035 for Hancock, 307,306 for Weaver 
and 12,576 scattering. Garfield over 
Hancock, 7,018. Garfield less than 
the combined vote of others, 313,864. 
Of the popular vote Garfield had 
48.26 per cent., Hancock 48.25, Weav- 
er 3-33» scattering .13. 

1884—Cleveland had 4,874,986 to 4,851,- 
981 for Blaine, 150,369 for St. John, 
173,370 for Butler. Cleveland had 
over Blaine 23,006. Cleveland had 
48.48 per cent., Blaine 48.22, St. John 
1.49, Butler 1.74. 

1888—Harrison had 5,441,902 to 5,538,- 
560 for Cleveland, 249,937 for Fisk, 
147,521 forStreeter, 3,673 for Cowdrey, 
1,591 for Curtis, and 9,845 scattering. 
I892—Cleveland had 5,556,562 to 5,162,- 
874 for Harrison, 1,055,424 for Wea¬ 
ver (People’s), and 264,066 for Bid- 
well. (Prohibition). 

Of the Presidents, Adams, Federalist; 
Polk Buchanan and Cleveland, Demo¬ 
crats; Taylor, Whig; Lincoln, Hayes, 
Garfield and Harrison, Republicans, 
did not, when elected, receive a majority 
of the popular vote. The highest per¬ 
centage of popular vote received by any 
President was 55.97 for Jackson, Demo¬ 
crat, in 1828, and the lowest 39.91 for 
Lincoln, Republican, in i860; Harrison, 
Republican, next lowest, with 47.83 
Hayes and Harrison, with the exception 
of John Quincy Adams, who was chosen 
by the House of Representatives, were 
the only Presidents ever elected who 
did not have a majority over their princi¬ 
pal competitors, and Tilden and Cleve¬ 
land the only defeated candidates who 
had a majority over the President-elect. 


Candle-Power. —The candle-power of a light may be ap¬ 
proximately calculated by comparing the shadow cast by a rod 
in the light of a standard candle, with the shadow cast by the 
light to be tested. By moving the latter toward or away from 
the rod, a point will be reached at which the shadow cast by 
both lights will be of the same intensity. The intensities of the 
two lights are directly proportional to the squares of their dis¬ 
tances from the shadows ; for example, suppose the light to be 
tested is three times the distance of the candy©; its illuminating 
power is nine times as great. 


162 





THE CIVIL SERVICE. 


The officials and clerks—over 120,000 in all—by whom the 
people’s business in the administration of government is carried 
on, constitute the Civil Service. About 5,000 of these are ap¬ 
pointed by the President, alone or with the consent of the Sen¬ 
ate ; about 15,000 under what are known as the “Civil Service 
Rules,” but the great body of officeholders are appointed by 
heads of departments. 

Those employed in the civil service have always been theo¬ 
retically entitled to serve “during good behavior,” but practically, 
until within a few years, their positions have depended upon 
their allegiance to the political party in power. 

In 1883 Congress passed a law for the improvement of the 
civil service of the United States. This act provides for the 
appointment by the President of three commissioners to have gen¬ 
eral charge of filling the vacancies in the civil service depart¬ 
ment, and stipulates that the fitness of all applicants for all sub¬ 
ordinate positions in the departments at Washington, and in all 
custom-houses and postoffices having as many as 50 officeholders, 
shall be tested by examinations, and the positions assigned with 
reference to the capacity, education and character of the appli¬ 
cants, regardless of political preferences. 

According to this, no absolute appointment to office can be 
made until the applicant has proven his or her ability to fill the 
position satisfactorily by six months’ service ; no person habitu¬ 
ally using intoxicating beverages to excess shall be appointed to, 
or retained in, any office ; no recommendation which may be 
given by any Senator or member of the House of Representa¬ 
tives, except as to character and residence, shall be considered 
by the examiners ; men and women shall receive the same pay 
for the same work. 

The general competitive examinations for admission to the 
service are limited to the following subjects : 1. Orthography, 

penmanship and copying. 2. Arithmetic—fundamental rules, 
fractions and percentage. 3. Interest, discount, and the elements 
of bookkeeping and of accounts. 4. Elements of the English 
language, letter writing, and the proper construction of sen¬ 
tences. 5. Elements of the geography, history and government 
of the U. S. 

A standing of 65 per cent, in the first three branches is neces¬ 
sary to qualify an applicant for appointment. Where special 
qualifications are necessary for specific work the examinations 
are adapted to test the knowledge of the applicant in that par¬ 
ticular line. 

No applicant will be examined who cannot furnish proof that 
he is of good moral character and in good health. 

There is a board of examiners in each of the principal cities of 

m 



LAND MEASURE—PUBLIC LANDS. 


the U. S., and several examinations are held each year. Appli¬ 
cations must be made on the regular “application paper,” which 
can be obtained of the commissioners, or any board of ex¬ 
aminers. 

Several of the States have adopted the principles laid down in 
the civil service act and applied them to the State civil service, 
and it is probably only a question of time when Civil Service 
Reform will be consummated throughout the U. S., and the 
public service will thereby be rendered much more efficient. 


United States Land Measure and Homestead Law. 

A township is 36 sections, each a mile square. A section 
is 640 acres. A quarter section, half a mile square, is 160 acres. 
An eighth section, half a mile long, north and south, and a 
quarter of a mile wide, is 80 
acres. A sixteenth section, a 
quarter of a mile square, is 40 
acres. 

The sections are all num¬ 
bered 1 to 36, commencing at 
north-east corner, thus: 

The sections are all divided 
in quarters, which are named 
by the cardinal points, as in 
section 1. The quarters are 
divided in the same way, as 
shown in the smaller dia¬ 
gram. The 
d e s c r i p- 
tion of a 

forty-acre lot would read: The south half 
of the west half of the south-west quarter of 
section 1 in township 24, north of range 7 
west, or as the case might be; and some¬ 
times will fall short and sometimes over¬ 
run the number of acres it is supposed to 
contain. 


Titles to the Public Lands—How Acquired. 

The public lands of the United States still unsold and open to 
settlement are divided into two classes, one class being sold by 
the Government for $1.25 per acre as the minimum price, the 
other at $2.50 per acre, being the alternate sections reserved by 
the United States in land grants to railroads, etc. Such tracts 
are sold upon application to the Land Register, Heads of 

164 


N W 

N.E 

N.W 

NIE 

N W 

N1W 

N;E 

N'E 

s w 

SE 

s w 

S.E 

N W 

N W 

N.E 

N E 

N W 

N E 

N W 

N E 

s w 

s w 

SE 

8 E 

s w 

S.E 

sw 

SE 

s w 

s w 

S E 

SE 




4 



NW NE 

6 

5 

3 

2 

SW SE 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 
















































a STAGE FAVORITES. 

families, or citizens over twenty-one years, who may settle 
upon any quarter section (or 160 acres) have the right under the 
pre-emption law of prior claim to purchase, on complying with 
the regulations. 

Under the homestead laws, any citizen, or intending citizen, 
has the right to 160 acres of the $1.25 land, or 80 acres of the 
$2.50 land, after an actual settlement and cultivation of the same 
for five years. Under the timber culture law, any settler who 
has cultivated for two years as much as five acres in trees of an 
80-acre homestead, or ten acres of a homestead of 160 acres, is 
entitled to a free patent for the land at the end of eight years. 


STAGE FAVORITES. 

The following is a carefully prepared list of stage favorites, 
giving the professional and private name of each: Fanny Dav» 
enport, Mrs. McDowell; Louise Pomeroy, Mrs. Arthur Elli¬ 
ott; Maggie Mitchell, Mrs. Henry Paddock; Rose Eytinge, Mrs. 
Cyril Searle; Rose Coghlan, Mrs. E. H. Edgerly; Margaret 
Mather, Margaret Miles; Kate Claxton, Mrs. Charles Steven¬ 
son; Effie Ellsler, Mrs. Frank Weston; Lillian Russell, Mrs. 
Edward Solomon; Agnes Booth, Mrs. John B. Schoeffel; Ida 
Mulle, Mrs. Benjamin Tuthill; Kate Castleton, Mrs. Harry 
Phillips; Lotta, Miss Charlotte Crabtree; Alice Atherton, Mrs. 
Willie Edouin; Minnie Maddern, Mrs. Le Grand White; Irene 
Perry, Mrs. Albert Weber; Minnie Palmer, Mrs. John R. 
Rogers; Marie Wainright, Mrs. Louis James; Marie Jansen, 
Mrs. James Barton; Laura Joyce, Mrs. Digby Bell; Minnie 
Conway, Mrs. Osmund Tearle; Dickie Lingard, Mrs. David 
Dalziell; Kittie Blanchard, Mrs. McKee Rankin; Louise Daven¬ 
port, Mrs. W. E. Sheridan; Louise Thorndyke, Mrs. D. Bouci- 
cault; Agnes Robertson, Mrs. D. Boucicault; Maude Granger, 

Mrs. Albert Follin; Marie Prescott, Mrs.-Perzel; Caroline 

Hill, Mrs. Herbert Kelcey; Minnie Hauk, Mrs. G. Von Hesse 
Wartegg; Lily West, Mrs. Harry Brown; Elbe Wilton, Mrs. 
Frank Wilton; Helen Dauvray, Mrs. J. M. Ward; Fay Temple¬ 
ton, Mrs. Howell; Modjeska, Mme. Helena Benda; Janauschek, 
Mrs. E. J. Pillott; Emma Abbott, Mrs. Eugene Wetherell; 
Marian Elmore, Mrs. Frank Losee; Ada Gray, Mrs. Charles 
Watkins; Lottie Church, Mrs. John A. Stevens; Sydney Cow¬ 
ell, Mrs. Geo. Giddens; Annie Pixley, Mrs. Robert Fulford; 
Clara Morris, Mrs. F. C. Harriott; Julia Wilson, Mrs. Charles 
Fox;.Dora Wiley, Mrs. Richard Golden; Lizzie May Ulmer, 
Mrs. George Ulmer; Mattie Vickers, Mrs. Charles Rogers; 
Theresa Vaughn, Mrs. William Mestayer; Albina de Mer, Mrs. 
M. B. Curtis; Alfa Norman, Mrs. Charles Byrne; Lizzie Harold, 
Mrs. W. S. Cornlay. 


165 




POINTS OF CRIMINAL LAW. 


You cannot lawfully condone an offense by receiving back 
stolen property. 

The exemption of females from arrest applies only in civil, not 
in criminal matters. 

Every man is bound to obey the call of a Sheriff for assistance 
\n making an arrest. 

The rule “Every man’s house is his castle” does not hold good 
when a man is accused of crime. 

Embezzlement can be charged only against a clerk or servant, 
or the officer or agent of a corporation. 

Bigamy cannot be proven in law if one party to a marriage has 
been absent and not heard from for five years. 

Grand larceny is when the value of property stolen exceeds 
$ 25 . 00 —when less than that, the offense is petit larceny. 

Arson to be in the first degree must have been committed at 
night and the buildings fired must have been inhabited. 

Drunkenness is not a legal excuse for crime, but delirium 
tremens is considered by the law as a species of insanity. 

In a case of assault it is only necessary to prove an “offer or 
attempt at assault.” Battery presumes physical violence. 

Mayhem, although popularly supposed to refer to injury to 
the face, lip, tongue, eye, or ear, applies to any injury done a 
limb. 

A felony is a crime punishable by imprisonment in a State 
prison ; an “infamous” crime is one punishable with death or 
State prison. 

A police officer is not authorized to make an arrest without a 
warrant unless he has personal knowledge of the offense for 
which the arrest is made. 

An accident is not a crime, unless criminal carelessness can be 
proven. A man shooting at a burglar and killing a member of 
his family is not a murderer. 

Burglary in the first degree can be committed only in the 
night time. Twilight, if dark enough to prevent distinguishing 
a man’s face, is the same as “night” in law. 

Murder to be in the first degree must be willful, premeditated 
and malicious, or committed while the murderer is engaged in a 
felonious act. The killing of a man in a duel is murder, and it is 
a misdemeanor to accept or give a challenge. 

False swearing fe perjury in law only when willfully done, 
and when the oath has been legally administered. Such quali¬ 
fying expressions as “to the best of my belief,” “as I am in¬ 
formed,” may save an averment from being perjured. The law 
is that the false statement sworn to must be absolute. Suborna¬ 
tion of perjury is a felony. 


166 



The Standard Silver Dollar. 

The coinage of the standard silver dollar was first authorizec 
by Act of April 2, 1792. Its weight was to be 416 grains stand¬ 
ard silver; fineness, 892.4; which was equivalent to 371*4 grains 
of fine silver, with 44% grains of pure copper alloy. This 
weight was changed by act of January 18, 1837, to 412*4 grains, 
and fineness changed to 900, thus preserving the same amount of 
pure silver as belore. By act of February 12, 1873, the coinage 
was discontinued. The total number of silver dollars coined 
from 1792 to 1873 was 8,045,838. The act of 1873 provided for 
the coinage of the “trade dollar,” of weight 420 grains, and an 
act passed in June, 1S74., ordered that all silver coins should only 
be “legal tender at their nominal value for amounts not 'exceed¬ 
ing $ 5 *” The effect of these acts was the “demonetization” of 
silver, of which so much has been said. Feb. 28, 1878, the coin¬ 
age of the standard dollar of 41234 grains was revived by act of 
Congress; $2,000,000 per month was ordered coined, and the 
coins were made legal tender for all debts, public and private. 
From February, 1878, to Nov. 1, 1885,213,257,594 of these stand¬ 
ard dollars were coined under the above act. 


Standard Time. 

What is known as the “new standard time” was adopted by 
agreement by all the principal railroads of the United States at 
12 o’clock, noon, on Nov. 18, 1883. The system divides the con¬ 
tinent into five longitudinal belts, and fixes a meridian of time 
for each belt. These meridians are fifteen degrees of longitude, 
corresponding to one hour of time, apart. Eastern Maine, New 
Brunswick and Nova Scotia use the the 60th meridian; the Can¬ 
adas, New England, the Middle States, Virginia and the Caro- 
linas use the 75th meridian, which is that of Philadelphia; the 
States of the Mississippi Valley, Alabama, Georgia and Florida, 
and westward, including Texas, Kansas, and the larger part of 
Nebraska and Dakota, use the 90th meridian, which is that of 
New Orleans. The Territories to the western border of Arizona 
and Montana go by the time of the 105th meridian, which is that of 
Denver; and the Pacific States employ the 120th meridian. The 
time divisions are known as intercolonial time, eastern time, 
central time, mountain time and Pacific time. A traveler pass¬ 
ing from one time belt to another will find his watch an hour too 
fast or too slow, according to the direction in which he is going. 
All points in an v time division using the time of the meridian must 
set their time-pieces faster or slower than the time indicated by 
the sun, according as their position is east or west of the line. 
This change of system reduced the time standards used by the 
railroads from fifty-three to five, a great convenience to the rail¬ 
roads and the traveling public. The suggestion leading to the 
adoption of this new system originated with Professor Abbe, of 
the Signal Bureau at Washington. | 1 G 7 J 



Theosophy. 

Much is said nowadays about theosophy, which is really but 
another name for mysticism. It is not a philosophy, for it will 
have nothing to do with pholosophical methods: it might be 
called a religion, though it has never had a following large 
enough to make a very strong impression on the world’s religious 
history. The name is from the Greek word theosophia—divine 
wisdom—and the object of theosophical study is professedly to 
understand the nature of divine things. It differs, however, from 
both philosophy and theology even when these have the same 
object of investigation. For, in seeking to learn the divine nature 
and attributes, philosophy employs the methods and principles 
of natural reasoning; theology uses these, adding to them cer¬ 
tain principles derived from revelation. Theosophy, ori the 
other hand, professes to exclude all reasoning processes as im¬ 
perfect, and to derive its knowledge from direct communication 
with God himself. It does not, therefore, accept the truths of 
recorded revelation as immutable, but as subject to modification 
by later direct and personal revelations. The theosophical idea 
has had followers from the earliest times. Since the Christian 
era we may class among theosophists such sects as Neo-Platon- 
ists, the Hesychasts of the Greek Church, the Mystics of mediae¬ 
val times, and, in later times, the disciples of Paracelsus, Thal- 
hauser, Bohme, Swedenborg, and others. Recently a small sect 
has arisen, which has taken the name of Theosophists. Its 
leader was an English gentleman who had become fascinated 
with the doctrine of Buddhism. Taking a few of his followers 
to India, they have been prosecuting their studies there, certain 
individuals attracting considerable attention by a claim to mirac¬ 
ulous powers. It need hardly be said that the revelations they 
have claimed to receive have been, thus far, without element of 
benefit to the human race. 


The Evolution Theory. 

'The evolution or development theory declares the universe 
as it now exists to be the result of a long series of changes, which 
were so far related to each other as to form a series of growths 
analogous to the evolving of the parts of a growing organism. 
Herbert Spencer defines evolution as a progress from the homo¬ 
geneous to the heterogeneous, from general to special, from the 
simple to the complex elements of life, and it is believed that 
this process can be traced in the formation of worlds in space, in 
the multiplication of types and species among animals and 
plants, in the origin and changes of languages and literature and 
the arts, and also in all the changes of human institutions and 
society. Asserting the general fact of progress in nature, the 
evolution theory shows that the method of this progress has 
been (i) by the multiplication of organs and functions; ( 2 ) ac- 

108 



THE MIND CURE. 


cording to a defined unity of plan, although with (3) the inter¬ 
vention of transitional forms, and (4) with modifications depend¬ 
ent upon surrounding conditions. Ancient writers occasionally 
seemed to have a glimmering knowledge of the fact of progress 
in nature, but as a theory “evolution” belongs to the enlighten¬ 
ment of the nineteenth century. Leibnitz, in the latter part of 
the seventeenth century, first uttered the opinion that the earth 
was once in a fluid condition, and Kant, about the middle of the 
eighteenth century, definitely propounded the nebular hypothesis, 
which was enlarged as a theory by the Herschels. The first 
writer to suggest the transmutation of species among animals was 
Buffon, about 1750, and other writers followed out the idea. The 
eccentric Lord Monboddo was the first to suggest the possible de¬ 
scent of man from the ape, about 1774. In i8i3Dr. W. C. Wells first 
proposed to apply the principle of natural selection to the natur¬ 
al history of man, and in 1S22 Professor Herbert first asserted 
the probable transmutation of species of plants. In 1844 a book 
appeared called “Vestiges of Creation,” which, though evidently 
not written by a scientific student, yet attracted great attention 
by its bold and ingenious theories. The authorship of this book 
was never revealed until after the death of Robert Chambers, a 
few years since, it became known that this publisher, whom no 
one would ever have suspected of holding such hetorodox the¬ 
ories, had actually written it. But the two great apostles of the 
evolution theory were Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer. 
The latter began his great work, the “First Principles of Philos¬ 
ophy,” showing the application of evolution in the facts of life, 
in 1852. In 1859 appeared Darwin’s “Origin of Species.” The 
hypothesis of the latter was that different species originated in 
spontaneous variation, and the survival of the fittest through 
natural selection and the struggle for existence. This theory 
was further elaborated and applied by Spencer, Darwin, Huxley, 
and other writers in Europe and America, and though to-day by 
no means all the ideas upheld by these early advocates of the 
theory are still accepted, evolution as a principle is now 
acknowledged by nearly all scientists. It is taken to be an estab¬ 
lished fact in nature, a valid induction from man’s knowledge of 
natural order. _ 

The Mind Cure. 

The mind cure, otherwise known in its various subdivisions as 
metaphysics, Christian science, mental science, etc., is a species of 
delusion quite popular at the present time. Every era of the world 
has cherished similar delusions, for the mass of the human race, 
even in what are considered the educated classes, are so unfa¬ 
miliar with the processes of exact reasoning that they fall a 

1G9 



THE MIND CURE. 

ready prey to quacks of all kinds. The fundamental idea of the 
mind cure system is that there is no such thing as sickness. Dis¬ 
ease, says one of their apostles, is an error of the mind, the result 
of fear. Fear is only faith inverted and perverted. God, who is 
all good Himself, and who made everything good, cannot have 
been the author of any disease. As disease, therefore, is not a 
creation, it has no existence, and when the healer has succeeded 
in impressing this fact upon the mind of the patient, the cure is 
effected. It is curious to note into what utter absurdities the 
need for consistency carries these apostles. Poisons, they say, 
would be quite harmless if the fear of them was removed, but we 
have yet to find the “mental science” teacher who will under¬ 
take to prove this by herself taking liberal doses of aconite and 
strychnine. The illnesses of children are explained by the hy¬ 
pothesis of hereditary fear. The majority of the teachers of this 
new faith are women, many of whom, no doubt, are sincere in 
their belief; but it may be safely stated that the men engaged as the 
so-called physicians of the new practice are, with few exceptions, 
unprincipled quacks, who have gone into the business for the 
money they can make by duping the ignorant. As far as there 
is any truth underlying the vagaries of mind cures, and their 
boasts of remarkable cases of healing, it may be admitted that 
the mind has much influence over the body. This fact has been 
recognized by intelligent physicians for centuries. And that the 
peculiar modern type of nervous diseases, which are so largely 
caused by excessive stimulus of the nerves and the imagination, 
should be amenable to cure through the imagination, is not 
strange. It will be noted that this mental cure has effected its 
miracles mainly among women, where it has the emotional tem¬ 
perament to work on, and almost wholly in the ranks of the 
wealthy and well-to-do, where there is little or no impoverish¬ 
ment of the system by insufficient food and excessive toil to hin¬ 
der its effects. We have not heard, nor are we likely to hear, of 
an epidemic disease checked by the mind cure, or of the healing 
of acute affections or organic troubles through its agency. Nor 
do we hear of its seeking to carry its message of healing into the 
houses of the suffering poor in large cities, where hunger, expos¬ 
ure and foul airs open wide the door to fevers and all deadly 
diseases, nor yet into hospitals for contagious or incurable affec¬ 
tions. In the presence of such realities it would prove, as its 
votaries probably understand, a too-painful mockery. Intelli¬ 
gently analyzed, therefore, this new revelation amounts to noth¬ 
ing more than a quite striking proof of the remarkable influence 
of the mind over the nervous system. Beyond this, the craze, in 
attempting to disprove the existence of disease, and to show that 
poisons do not kill, is simply running against the plain and inevi¬ 
table facts of life, and can safely be left to perish through it* 
own rashness. 170 


STOCK INVESTMENTS EXPLAINED 


T HE CAPITAL of corporations is always divided into 
shares, usually of $100 each. These are known as stock , 
and represent an interest in the property and profits 
of the company. A dividejid is the distribution of the profits, 
proportionate to number of shares held among the stockholders. 
Stock certificates are written instruments, signed by the proper 
officers of the company, and certifying that the holder is the 
owner of a certain number of shares. These are transferable, 
and may be bought and sold the same as other property. The 
sum for which each share or certificate was issued is the par 
value , and the amount for which it can be sold the market value. 

Preferred Stock takes preference of the ordinary stock of 
a corporation, and the holders are entitled to a stated per cent, 
annually out of net earnings before a dividend can be declared 
on common stock. Preferred stocks are generally the result of 
reorganization, although sometimes issued in payment of floating 
or unsecured debts. 

Watering Stock.— Sometimes the charter of a corporation 
forbids the declaring of a dividend exceeding a certain per cent, 
of the par value of its stock. In this case the directors may find 
it desirable to “water” the stock—that is, issue additional shares. 
This increase in the number of shares of course reduces the per¬ 
centage of dividend, although the same profit in the aggregate is 
secured to the stockholders. 

Dealing in Stocks. 

The person employing a broker to buy the stock is required to 
advance at the outset a certain per cent, of the purchase price of 
the stock, as security for possible losses by reason of a decline of 
the stock while in the broker’s hands. The amount of the mar¬ 
gin required is generally io per cent., but may be more or less, 
and frequently is nothing at all, depending on the broker’s confi¬ 
dence in his customer’s readiness to meet losses, if there be any. 

The broker then goes into the stock exchange and buys of 
some selling broker the stock indicated, the buying broker him¬ 
self advancing the purchase money. 

The relation existing between the customer and the broker in 
a transaction of this kind may be briefly stated as follows: 

The broker agrees: i. That he will buy for his customer the 
stock indicated, at its market value. 2. That he will hold the 
stock for the benefit of his customer so long as the necessary 
margin is advanced, and kept paid, or until notice is given by 
either party that the transaction must be closed. 3. That he 
will at all times have the stock in his possession or under his con¬ 
trol; or an equal amount of other shares of the same stock, sub- 

171 



STOCKS AND BONDS. 


ject to the call of the customer. 4. That he will sell the shares 
on the order of the customer, on payment to him of the pur¬ 
chase price advanced by the broker, accounting to the customer 
for the proceeds of the sale. 5. That he will exercise proper 
care and competent skill in the services which he undertakes to 
perform. 

The customer agrees: 1. To pay the margin called for at the 
outset. 2. To keep good such margin according to the fluctua¬ 
tion of the market. 3. To take the stock purchased by his order 
when requested to do so by the broker, paying the latter the dif¬ 
ference between the margin advanced and the sum paid for the 
stock by the broker, together with his commissions for doing the 
business. 

Although the broker’s money bought the stock, it belongs to 
the customer, together with all its earnings and dividends, while 
in the broker’s possession, and the customer is entitled to the 
possession of the stock on payment to the broker of the sum of 
money to which he is entitled. 

The broker may pledge the stock, or use it in his business, as 
collateral, but he must have it ready when called for by the cus¬ 
tomer, or other shares of the same stock equivalent in value. 

The customer and the broker may make an express agreement 
that the broker may sell the stock without notice to the customer 
in the case of a threatened decline. 

Generally speaking, when there are no directions as to selling, 
the broker will be protected if he can show that he followed the 
usual custom of brokers in like circumstances. 

If the customer fails to advance the necessary margin when 
called for on reasonable notice, the broker may sell for his own 
protection. 

The reasonable notice may be an hour, a day, or a week, de¬ 
pending on the condition of the market for that particular stock. 

If a broker fraudulently converts the stock to his own use, he 
is guilty of embezzlement. 

Bonds. 

A bond is in the nature of a promissory note—the obligation 
of a corporation, state, county or city to pay a certain sum of 
money at a certain time, with interest payable at fixed periods or 
upon certain conditions. 

The bond of a company may be a perfectly safe investment, 
when the stock is not; and the stock of a prosperous and suc¬ 
cessful company, paying large dividends or having a large sur¬ 
plus, may sell at a higher price than the bonds of the same com¬ 
pany, the income from which is limited to the agreed rate of in¬ 
terest which they bear. A much closer scrutiny should be made 

172 


BROKERAGE AND COMMISSION 


of a company’s standing when one thinks of investing in its 
share capital, than when it is the intention to loan the company 
money on its mortgage bonds. 

Generally the bonds of business corporations are secured by 
mortgage, but some classes of bonds are dependent on the solv¬ 
ency or good faith of the company issuing them. 

The cotipons attached to bonds represent the different install¬ 
ments of interest, and are to be cut off and collected from time 
to time as the interest becomes payable. Bonds are sometimes 
issued without coupons, and are then called registered bonds. 
Such bonds are payable only to the registered owner, and the in¬ 
terest on these is paid by check. Convertible bonds are such as 
contain provisions whereby they may be exchanged for stock, 
lands or other property. 

Bonds are known as First Mortgage, Second Mortgage, etc., 
Debentures, Consols, Convertible Land Grant, Sinking Fund, 
Adjustment, Income or otherwise, according to their priority of 
lien, the class of property upon which they are secured, etc. In¬ 
come bonds are generally bonds on which the interest is only 
payable if earned, and ordinarily are not secured by mortgage. 
Bonds are also named from the rate of interest they bear, or 
from the dates at which they are payable or redeemable, or from 
both; as, U. S. 4’s 1907, Virginia 6’s Western Union 7’s, coupon, 
1900, Lake Shore reg. 2d, 1903. 

Brokerage and Commission. 

A commission merchant, or factor, is an agent intrusted by 
his principal with goods to be sold, with the authority to deduct 
from the proceeds of the sales a certain sum agreed upon as com¬ 
pensation for his services, remitting the balance to his principal. 

Such an agent impliedly agrees to perform his duties in a care¬ 
ful and diligent manner, and to obey the orders and instructions 
which he receives from his principal so far as he is able. 

He is bound to exercise his judgment and discretion to the best 
advantage of his principal, and to render just and true accounts. 

In the absence of special instructions to the contrary, he has 
an implied authority to sell at such times, and at such prices, as 
In the exercise of his discretion he may deem for the best inter¬ 
ests of his principal. 

He may sell on credit, if it is customary so to do, among those 
(n the same business, unless he has received orders to the con¬ 
trary. 

All profits made by him in handling his principal’s property or 
money, beyond his ordinary compensation, are for the benefit of 
the principal. 

He cannot himself be the purchaser of the goods intrusted to 

173 


TERMS USED ON ’ CHANGE . 


him to sell, unless he deals openly and fairly with his principal, 
and acquaints him with all the facts and circumstances material 
for him to know. 

Bankruptcy. 

Laws have been enacted in nearly all the States for the pur¬ 
pose of distributing the property of an insolvent debtor ratably 
among his creditors and discharging the debtor from further 
liability. Proceedings may be instituted by the debtor himself 
or by a creditor. As a general rule, proceedings in one State 
are not binding on a creditor residing in another State; but if 
Congress were to pass a national bankrupt law, this would annul 
all State laws on the subject, and proceedings under the national 
law would bind creditors in all the States and Territories. 

Insolvency proceedings are generally commenced by a peti¬ 
tion to the Judges of the court of insolvency, setting forth 
among other things the debtor’s inability to pay all his debts in 
full, and his desire to surrender all his property for the benefit 
of his creditors. 

If satisfied of the truth of matters alleged in the petition, the 
judge issues an order commanding the proper officer to take the 
debtor’s property and hold it until a certain time, when the cred¬ 
itors meet and choose an assignee. 

The assignee then takes charge of the property, turns it into 
money, and declares a dividend for the creditors. 

Pending the proceedings, the debtor may be examined on oath 
for the purpose of making him disclose all matters concerning 
his property and the disposal thereof. 

If the debtor has conformed to the insolvent law in all re¬ 
spects, he is entitled to a discharge from his debts, which is 
given him by the judge on the debtor’s obtaining the requisite 
assent from the creditors. 

In nearly all the States an insolvent debtor may, with the con¬ 
sent of his creditors, and in some States without such consent, 
assign all his property to a trustee for the benefit of his cred¬ 
itors, who converts it into money, dividing it pro rata among the 
creditors. 

Terms Used on ’Change. 

Accommodation Paper.— Notes or bills not representing an actual sale or trade 
transaction, but merely drawn to be discounted for the benefit of drawer, acceptor 
or indorsers, or all combined. 

Balance of Trade.— Difference in value between total imports and exports of 
a country. 

Ballooning. —To work up a stock fax.beyond its intrinsic worth by favorable 
stories or fictitious sales. 

Bear. —One who strives to depress the price of stocks, etc., and for this reason 
“ goes short.” 

Buying Long. —Buying in expectation of a rise 

Breadstuffs. —Any kind of grain, corn or meal. 

174 


THE INTER-STATE COMMERCE LAW. 


Broker.—A n agent or factor; a middleman paid by commission. 

Brokerage. —A percentage for the purchase or sale of money and stocks. 

Bull. —A broker or dealer who believes that the value of stocks or breadstuff’s 
will rise, and speculates for a rise. 

Call. —Demand for payment of installments due on stocks. 

Call. —A privilege given to another to “ call” for delivery at a time and price 
fixed. 

Clique. —A combination of operators controlling large capital in order to unduly 
expand or break down the market. 

Collaterals. —Any kind of values given in pawn when money is borrowed. 

Corners. —The buying up of a large quantity of stocks or grain to raise the price. 
When the market is oversold, the shorts, if compelled to deliver, find themselves in 
a “ corner.” 

Curbstone Brokers. —Brokers or agents who are not members of any regular 
organization, and do businessmainly on the sidewalk. 

Delivery. —When stock or grain is brought to the buyer in exact accordance with 
the rules of the Exchange, it is called a good delivery. When there are irregulari¬ 
ties, the delivery is pronounced bad, and the buyer can appeal to the Exchange. 

Differences —The price at which a stock is bargained for and the rate or day of 
delivery are nc. usually the same, the variation being termed the difference. 

Factor. —An agent appointed to sell goods on commission 

Factorage. —Commissions allowed factors. 

Flat. —Inactive; depressed; dull. The fiat value of bonds and stocks is the 
value without interest. 

Flyer. —A small side operation, not employing one’s whole capital. 

Forcing Quotations is where brokers wish to keep up the price of a stock and to 
prevent its falling out of sight. This is generally accomplished by a small sale. 

Gunning a stock is to use every art to produce a break when it is known that a 
certain house is heavily supplied and would be unable to resist an attack. 

Kite-Flying. —Expanding one’s credit beyond wholesome limits. 

Lame Duck. —Stock-brokers’ slang for one unable to meet his liabilities. 

Long. —One is long when he carries stock or grain for a rise. 

Pointer. —A theory or fact regarding the market on which one bases a specula¬ 
tion. 

Pool. —The stock or money contributed by a clique to carry through a corner. 

Price Current. —The prevailing price of merchandise, stock or securities. 

Selling Short. —To “ sell short” is to sell for future delivery what one has not 
got, in hopes that prices will fall. 

Watering a stock is the art of doubling the quantity of stock without improving 
Its quality. ___ 

THE INTER-STATE COMMERCE LAW. 

The Inter-State Commerce Act is a law passed by Congress in 
1887, for the regulation of rates and the management of inter¬ 
state commerce. It applies to carriers engaged in the transpor¬ 
tation of passengers or property wholly by railroad or partly by 
railroad and partly by water, from one State, Territory or District 
of the United States to any other State, Territory or District, or 
to or from a foreign country. It provides for the appointment of 
a board of five commissioners, empowered to enquire into the 
management of the carriers and determine the reasonableness 
of their rates. A carrier whose line is entirely within a State is 
subject to the act so far as it makes or accepts through rates 
on inter-State commerce. 

Among other things the act requires that all charges shall be 
just and reasonable} that charges for a shorter distance shall not 

175 




THE LA WS OF CHANCE . 


exceed those for a longer distance on the same line in the same 
direction, when the circumstances and conditions are similar; 
that there shall be no unjust discrimination as between persons 
or classes of traffic or localities, in the charges made or in the 
service rendered; that the rates charged for transportation shall 
be printed, filed with the Commission and kept for public 
inspection at the several stations, and that the carriers shall an¬ 
nually make a complete exhibit of their business to the Commis¬ 
sion. 

The act makes exceptions from its provisions of the carriage 
of property for the United States or for any State or municipal 
government, or for charitable purposes, or to or from fairs and 
expositions, and it allows of the issuing of mileage, excursion or 
commutation tickets, and admits of the giving of reduced rates to 
ministers of religion and free transportation to the officers and 
employes of the carrier, and to the principal officers of other 
carriers. ' _ 

The Laws of Chance. —Card-players who are continually 
bewailing their ill-luck of always receiving the same poor cards, 
will, perhaps, be reassured by knowing that the fifty-two cards, 
with thirteen to each of the four players, can be distributed in 
53,644,737,756,488,792,839,237,440,000 different ways, so that there 
would still be a good stock of combinations to draw from, even 
if a man from Adam’s time had devoted himself to no other 
occupation than that of playing at cards. 


The Place Where the Sun Jumps a Day. —Chatham 
Island, lying off the coast of New Zealand, in the South Pacific 
Ocean, is peculiarly situated, as it is one of the habitable points 
of the globe where the day of the week changes. It is just in 
the line of demarkation between dates. There, at high 12 Sun¬ 
day, noon ceases, and instantly Monday meridian begins. Sun¬ 
day comes into a man s house on the east side and becomes 
Monday by the time it pasze- out the western door. A man sits 
down to his noonday ’.inner n Sunday, and it is Monday noon 
before he finishes it. There Saturday P Sunday and Sunday is 
Monday, and Monday becomes suddenly transferred into Tues¬ 
day. It is a good place for people who have lost much time, for 
by taking an early start they can always get a day ahead on 
Chatham Island. It took philosophers and geographers a long 
time to settle the puzzle of where Sunday noon ceased and 
Monday noon began with a man traveling west fifteen degrees 
an hour, or with the sun. It is to be hoped that the next 
English arctic expedition will settle the other mooted question; 
“Where will one stop who travels northwest continually?” 

176 




INSURANCE. 


A STOCK Insurance Company is one whose capital is 
owned by stockholders, they alone sharing the profits 
and they alone being liable for losses. The business of 
such a company, and also of a mixed company, is managed by 
directors chosen by the stockholders. Policy-holders, unless at 
the same time stockholders, have no voice in the management 
of the company’s business or in the election of its officers. 

A Mutual Insurance Company is one in which the profits 
and losses are shared among the policy-holders (the insured.) 

Mixed Companies are a combination of the foregoing. In a 
mixed company all profits above a certain fixed dividend are 
usually divided among the policj r -holders. 

Some mutual and mixed companies issue what are called non¬ 
participating policies. The holders of these do not share in the 
profits or losses. 

FIRE INSURANCE. 

Policies for fire insurance are generally issued for a period of 
one to five years. Ordinarily, in case of loss by fire, the 
insured will be paid the extent of his loss up to the amount of 
insurance, unless the insurance company prefer to replace or re¬ 
pair the damaged property, which privilege is usually reserved. 
If the policy contains the “average clause” the payment will 
cover only such portion of the loss as the amount of insurance 
bears to the value of the property insured. 

A Floating Policy is one which covers property stored in 
several buildings or places. The name is applied more particu¬ 
larly to policies which cover goods whose location may be 
changed in process of manufacture, or in the ordinary course of 
business. The “average clause” is a usual condition of policies 
of this class. 

Short Rates are rates for a term less than a year. If an insur¬ 
ance policy is terminated at the request of the policy-holder, 
the company retains the customary “short rates” for the time 
the policy has been in force, as shown by the following tables: 


Policy for 

1 year. 

Policy for 

2 years. 

Policy for 

3 years. 

Policy for 

4 years. 

Policy for 

5 years. 

Charge this pro¬ 
portion of whole 
Premium. 

1 mo. 

2 “ 

3 “ 

4 " 

5 ** 

6 ** 

7 " 

8 “ 

9 “ 

10 “ 

11 " 

2 mo. 

4 “ 

6 “ 

8 “ 

10 “ 

12 “ 

14 “ 

16 “ 

18 “ 

20 “ 

22 “ 

3 mo. 

G “ 

9 “ 

12 “ 

15 “ 

18 “ 

21 " 

24 “ 

27 “ 

30 “ 

33 “ 

4 mo. 

8 “ 

12 “ 

16 “ 

20 “ 

24 “ 

28 “ 

32 “ 

36 “ 

40 “ 

44 “ 

5 mo. 

10 “ 

15 “ 

20 “ 

25 “ 

30 “ 

35 “ 

40 “ 

45 “ 

50 “ 

55 “ 

20 per cent. 

30 

40 “ 

50 

60 “ 

70 

75 “ 

80 

85 

9° “ 

95 “ k 177 




















INSURANCE . 


When a policy is terminated at the option of the company, a 
ratable portion of the premium is refunded for the unexpired 
term. , 

LIFE INSURANCE. 

In ordinary life policies a certain premium is to be paid 
every year until the death of the insured, when the policy 
becomes payable to the beneficiary. There are other kinds of 
policies, however, and these are described below: 

Limited Payment Life Policy. —Conditions: Premiums to be paid annually for a 
certain fixed number of years, or until the death of the insured, should that occur 
prior to the expiration of this period. Policy payable at death of the insured. 
Advantages: Payments on this kind of policy may all be made while the insured is 
best able to make them, and, if he live to an old age, the policy will not be a con¬ 
tinual burden, but will rather be a source of income, as the yearly dividends may be 
taken out in cash or added to the amount of insurance. 

Perm Life Policy. —In this method of insurance, the insurance company agrees 
to pay to the beneficiaries a certain sum on the death of the insured, should that 
event occur within a fixed term. 

Endowment Policy. —A combination of a Term Life Policy and a Pure Endow¬ 
ment. These policies are issued for endowment periods of xo, 15 , 20 , 25 , 30 or 35 
years, and may be paid up by a single payment, by an annual premium during the 
endowment period, or by five or ten annual payments. Conditions: 1 . Insurance 
during a stipulated period, payable at the death of the insured, should that event 
happen within said period. 2 . An endowment of the same amount as the policy, 
payable to the insured, if still living at th^ end of the period fixed. Advantages: 
Limited term of payments; insurance during the time when the death of the insured 
would cause most embarrassment to his family; provision for old age, as the amount 
of the policy will be paid to the insured if still living, at a time when advanced age 
may make it of great benefit. 

Annuity Policies are secured by a single cash payment and insure the holder the 
yearly payment of a certain sum of money during life. 

Joint Life Policy. —An agreement to pay a certain sum on the death of any one 
of two or more persons thus insured. 

Non forfeiting Policies do not become void for non-payment of premiums. In 
some companies all limited payment life policies, and all endowment policies, after 
premiums for three (or two) years have been paid, and the original policy is sur¬ 
rendered within a certain time, provide for paid-up assurance for as many parts of 
the original amount assured as there shall have been complete annual premiums 
received in cash by the company. Some companies voluntarily apply all credited 
dividends to the continuance of the insurance. Others apply the legal reserve to 
the purchase of term insurance at regular rates. 

Special Forms. —The Reserve Endowment, Tontine Investment and other special 
policies guarantee to the holder a definite surrender value at the termination of 
certain periods. The surrender value of a policy is the amount in cash which the 
company will pay the holder of a policy on its surrender—the legal reserve less a 
certain per cent, for expenses. 

The Reserve of life insurance policies is the present value of 
the amount to be paid at death less the present value of all the 
net premiums to be paid in the future. 

The Reserve Fund of a life insurance company is that sum 
in hand which, invested at a given rate of interest, together with 
future premiums on existing policies, should be sufficient to meet 
all obligations as they become due. It is the sum of the separate 
reserves of the several policies outstanding. 

The Expectation of Life is the number of years which one 

178 


INSURANCE. 


may probably live. This average number of years has been de¬ 
termined from the experience of insurance companies. 


Age. 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

Age. 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

Age. 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

Age. 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

Age. 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

0 

28.15 

20 

34.22 

40 

26.04 

60 

15.45 * 

80 

5.85 

1 

36.78 

21 

33.84 

41 

25.01 

61 

14.86 

81 

5.50 

2 

38.74 

22 

33.46 

42 

25-19 

62 

14.26 

82 

5.16 

3 

40.01 

23 

33.08 

43 

24.77 

63 

13.66 

83 

4.87 

4 

40.73 

24 

32.70 

44 

24.35 

64 

1305 

84 

4-66 

5 

40.88 

25 

32.33 

45 

23.92 

65 

12.43 

85 

4.57 

6 

40.69 

26 

31.93 

46 

23.37 

66 

11.96 

86 

4.21 

7 

40.47 

27 

31.50 

47 

22.83 

67 

11.48 

87 

3.90 

8 

40.14 

28 

31.08 

48 

22.27 

68 

11.01 

88 

3.67 

9 

39.72 

29 

30.66 

49 

21.72 

69 

10.50 

89 

3.56 

10 

39.23 

30 

30.25 

50 

21.17 

70 

10.06 

90 

3.43 

11 

38.64 

31 

29.83 

51 

20.61 

71 

9.60 

91 

3.32 

12 

38.02 

32 

29.43 

52 

20.05 

72 

9.14 

92 

3.12 

13 

37.41 

33 

29.02 

53 

19.49 

73 

8.69 

93 

2.40 

14 

36.79 

34 

28.62 

54 

18.92 

74 

8.25 

94 

1.98 

15 

36.17 

35 

28.22 

55 

18.35 

75 

7.83 

95 

1.62 

16 

35.76 

36 

27.78 

56 

17.78 

76 

7.40 



17 

35.37 

37 

27.34 

57 

17.20 

77 

6.99 



18 

34.98 

38 

26.91 

58 

16.63 

78 

6.59 



19 

34.59 

39 

26.47 

59 

16.04 

79 

6.21 




MARINE AND TRANSIT INSURANCE. 

Insurance of vessels and their cargoes against the perils of 
navigation is termed Marine Insura?ice. 

Inland and Transit Insurance refer to insurance of merchan¬ 
dise while being transported from place to place either by rail 
or water routes, or both. 

Instirance Certificates, showing that certain property has 
been insured and stating the amount of the insurance and the 
name of the party abroad who is authorized to make the settle¬ 
ment, are issued by marine companies. They are negotiable 
and are usually sent to the consignee of the merchandise to 
make the loss payable at the port of destination. 

The adjustment of marine policies in case of loss is on the 
same principle as the adjustment of fire policies containing the 
“average clause.” 

Of>en Policies are such upon which additional insurances 
may be entered at different times. 


Number of families in the United States (census of 1880), 
9,945,916; average number to a square mile, 3.43. Number of 
dwellings, 8,955,842; average to the square mile, 3.02. Number 
of acres to a family, 186.62. Number of persons to a family, 
5.04. Number of persons to a dwelling, 5.6. 

Number of farms in the United States in 1880, 4,008,907; in 
1870, 2,659,985; in 1860, 2,044,077; in 1850, 1,449,073. 

179 




























INTERNAL REVENUE. 

The internal revenue of the U. S. includes the taxes on 
spirits, tobacco, etc., and most of the receipts from national 
taxes, except customs duties and the receipts from the sale of 
public lands, patent fees, postal receipts, etc. 

The Constitution declares that Congress has the power “to 
lav and collect taxes, duties, imports and excises,” and that they 
shall be uniform throughout the U. S., and provides that direct 
taxes shall be apportioned among the States only in proportion 
to the population. 

At the close of the revolution raising money by internal 
taxation was hardly thought of, and at that time the condition of 
the people and manufactures would not warrant it. The first in¬ 
ternal revenue tax imposed by Congress was that of March 3, 
1791, on distilled spirits of domestic manufacture, the enforce¬ 
ment of which led to the whiskey insurrection. In 1798 the first 
direct tax of the kind, one of $2,000,000, was apportioned among 
the States, and it was proposed that it should be levied on 
dwelling-houses, slaves and land. 

All internal taxes were repealed in 1802 in accordance with 
the recommendation of President Jefferson, and no others were 
authorized until 1813, when the war with England necessitated an 
increased revenue. These taxes were continued a few years after 
the war, but were abolished, and none were levied until 1861. 

The civil war forced a renewal of the internal revenue system, 
and in 1861 a direct tax of $20,000,000 was apportioned among 
the States. On July 1, 1862, an act was passed levying taxes on 
all sorts and kinds of articles too numerous to mention. A few 
industries were taxed out of existence and all were more or less 
disturbed, but the people submitted without opposition. Great 
reductions were made after the war ceased, and at the present 
time the only subjects of internal revenue taxation are tobacco, 
spirits, fermented liquors, bank circulation and oleomarga¬ 
rine. 

The following have always been exempt from taxation in the 

U« S.. 

Public property of both State and nation; the property of in¬ 
corporated institutions of learning; houses of worship; cemeteries 
and the personal property of individuals, so far as to cover the 
lecessities of life. 

In 1792 the amount raised by internal revenue was $208,942 ;in 
1866, $309,226,813; in 1887, $118,837,301. 

You Cannot Count a Trillion. —It is impossible to count 
a trillion. Had Adam counted continuously from his creation 
to the present day, he would not have reached that number, for 
it would take him over 9,512 years. At the rate of 200 a minute, 
there could be counted 12,000 an hour, 288,000 a day, and 105,- 
130,000 a yean 130 



HINTS TO ADVERTISERS. 

The first thing for an advertiser to decide is the mediums 
which reach the desired class of customers. Cheap mediums do 
not, as a rule, bring good returns, neither does it follow that a 
periodical claiming a large circulation takes precedence over one 
with a less circulation. The tone of the publication and charac¬ 
ter of its readers determine much. A first class periodical with 
a bona fide paid circulation is far more desirable than a much 
larger sample copy circulation. People who think enough of a 
publication to buy it are very apt to read it. 

Except in special cases, hand-bills and dodgers are of little or 
no account. 

The advertisement rnust be attractive, and if lasting results be 
desired, the'goods must be as represented, and the advertisement 
honestly worded. 

The occasional advertiser reaps but meager results; ’tis the 
constant, persistent advertiser who reaps the most benefit. 

The secret of success in advertising lies largely in keeping the 
name and goods constantly before the eye of the public. 

Printer’s ink is beneficial to any business, but common sense 
and good judgment are absolutely necessary. The shrewd ad¬ 
vertiser and successful business man exercises as much care and 
discretion in placing his advertisement as he does in buying his 
goods. 

HOW TO COLLECT A DEBT. 

Thousands of dollars are lost every day through negligence or 
carelessness of creditors. 

If there is a fixed date for payment, be on hand promptly to re¬ 
ceive it. 

If not paid, follow it up closely. 

If party cannot pay now, get a promise for another date of 
payment. Pleasant words and a genial bearing invariably are 
more effective than threats of legal measures. 

If the debtor lives near, call and express your urgent needs of 
money, etc. 

If you cannot get it all, take a part, and get a note for the bal¬ 
ance. Notes are more easily handled and collected than open 
accounts. 

If the debtor is irresponsible, get him to secure an indorser, so 
that you “ can get the money on it at the bank,” etc. 

If possible, “know your man.” 

With some it is absolutely necessary to be sharp and positive, 
while the man who honestly intends to pay can be handled better 
by pleasant words, though frank and business-like. 

If a debtor is at a distance, write a courteous letter, inclosing 
bill or statement, requesting prompt settlement. 

If necessary, a second or third letter should be written* 

181 


HOW TO MAKE CHANGE QUICKLY. 

Always consider the amount of purchase as if that much 
money were already counted out, then add to amount of 
purchase enough small change to make even dollars, counting 
out the even dollars last until full amount is made up. 

If the purchase amounts to 57 cents, and you are handed $ 2.00 
in payment, countout 43 cents first to make an even dollar. Then 
lay out the other dollar. 

Should the purchase be $ 3 . 69 , to be taken out of $ 20 , 00 , begin 
with $ 3.69 as the basis and make up even $ 4.00 by laying out 31 
cents. This 31 cents with the amount of the purchase you will 
consider as $ 4 . 00 , and count out even dollars to make up the 
$ 20.00 which the customer has handed in? 


MERCHANTS’ COST AND PRICE MARKS. 

All merchants use private cipher marks to note cost or selling 
price of goods. The cipher is usually made up from some short 
word or sentence of nine or ten letters, as: 

CORNELIUS, A. 

123456789 0. 

Five dollars, according to this key, would be eaa. But gen¬ 
erally an extra letter is used to prevent repeating the mark for 0 . 
If the sign for a second 0 in this case were y , we would have 
eay instead of eaa. 


TIME IN WHICH MONEY DOUBLES. 


Per 

Cent. 

Simple Int. 

Comp. Int. 

Per 

Cent. 

Simple Int. 

Comp. Int. 

2 

50 years. 

35 years. 

5 

20 years. 

14 yrs. 75 da. 

2K 

40 years. 

28 yrs. 26 da. 

6 

16 yrs. 8 mos. 

11 yrs. 327 da. 

3 

33 yrs. 4 mos. 

23 yrs. 164 da. 

7 

14 yrs. 104 da. 

10 yrs. 89 da. 

3/4 

28yrs. 208 da. 

20 yrs. 54 da. 

8 

12)4 years. 

9 yrs. 2 da. 

4 

25 years. 

17yrs.246da. 

9 

11 yrs. 40 da. 

8 yrs. 16 da. 

4K 

22 yrs. 81 da. 

15yrs.273da. 

10 

10 years. 

7yrs. 100 da. 


“A Dollar Saved, a Dollar Earned. 

The way to accumulate money is to save small sums with 
regularity. A small sum saved daily for fifty years will grow at 


the following rate: 


Daily Savings. Result. 

One cent.$ 950 

Ten cents. 9,504 

Twenty cents. 19,006 

Thirty cents. 28,512 

Forty cents. 38,015 

Fifty cents. 47,520 


Daily Savings. Result. 

Sixty cents .$ 57,024 

Seventy cents. 66,528 

Eighty cents. 76,032 

Ninety cents. 85,537 

One Dollar. 475,208 


182 





























Short interest rules. 

To find the interest on a given sum for any number of days, 
at any rate of interest, multiply the principal by the number of 
days and divide as follows: 

At 3 per cent., by . . 

At 4 per cent., by . . 

At 5 per cent., by . . 

At 6 per cent., bv . . 

At 7 per cent., by . . 

At 8 per cent., by 

TRADE DISCOUNTS. 


. 120 

At 

9 

per 

cent., 

by . 

. 40 

. 90 

At 

10 

per 

cent., 

by. . 

. . 36 

. 72 

At 

12 

per 

cent., 

by • 

. 30 

. GO 

At 

15 

per 

cent., 

by . . 

. . 24 

. 52 

At 

20 

per 

cent., 

by . 

. 18 

. 45 







Wholesale houses usually invoice their goods to retailers at 
‘list” prices. List prices were once upon a time supposed to be 
retail prices, but of late a system of “long” list prices has come 
into vogue in many lines of trade—that is, the list price is made 
exorbitantly high, so that wholesalers can give enormous dis¬ 
counts. These discounts, whether large or small, are called 
trade discounts, and are usually deducted at a certain rate per 
cent, from the face of invoice. 

The amount of discount generally depends upon size of bill or 
terms of settlement, or both. Sometimes two or more discounts 
are allowed. Thus 30% and 5% is expressed 30 and 5, meaning 
first a discount of 30% and then 3% from the remainder. 

3c and 5 is not 35%, but 33%%. 10, 5 and 3 off means three 

successive discounts. 

A wholesale house allowing 10, 5 and 3 off gets more for its 
goods than it would at 18 off. 


HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT MONEY. 

Ir. the space at disposal here, it is impossible of course to give 
a complete illustrated counterfeit detector, but the following 
simple rules, laid down by Bank Note Examiner Geo. R. Baker, 
will be found extremely valuable: 

Examine the form and features of all human figures; if graceful, and features 
distinct, examine the drapery. Notice whether the folds lie naturally, and observe 
whether the fine strands of the hairare plain and distinct. 

Examine the lettering. In a genuine bill it is absolutely perfect. There has 
never been a counterfeit put out but was more or less defective in the lettering. 

Counterfeiters rarely, if ever, get the imprint or engraver’s name perfect. The 
shading in the background of the vignette and over and around the letters forming 
the name of the bank, on a good bill, is even and perfect; on a counterfeit it is un¬ 
even and imperfect. 

The die work around the figures of the denomination should be of the same 
character as the ornamental work surrounding It. 

Never take a bill deficient in any of these points. 


Big Trees. —Of ninety-two redwood trees in Calaveras Grove, 
Cal., ten are over thirty feet in diameter, and eighty-two have a 
diameter of from fifteen to thirty feet. Their ages are estimated 
at from 1,000 to 3,500 years. Their height ranges from 150 to 
237 feet. 


183 




BANKERS’ 'TIME: TABLE. 

To Find the Number of Days Between Any Two Dates of the Same Year, or Two Con* 

secutive Years, 

Consult the following table. The numbers in black letter at head of the columns represent the months:— 1 , January; 2, February, 
etc. In leap years, add one to the corresponding numbers of all dates after February 28 . 


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[ 184 ] 








































































FACTS ABOUT RAILROADS AND TRANSPORTATION 



Twenty Points on American Railroading. 

I. There are in the United States 150,600 miles of railway— 
about half the mileage of the world. 2. The estimated cost is 
$9,000,000,000. 3. The number of people employed by Ameri¬ 
can railways is more than 1,000,000. 4. The fastest time made 

by a train is 422 6-10 miles in 7 hours, 23 minutes (443 minutes), 
one mile being made in 47 11-29 seconds, on the West Shore 
Railroad, New York. 5. The cost of a high-class eight-wheel 
~ passenger locomotive is about $8,500. 6. The 

r- longest mileage operated by a single system is 

yhat of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe—about 
|S,000 miles. 7. The cost of a palace sleeping-car 
'is about $15,000, or $17,000 if “vestibuled.” 8. 
The longest railway bridge span in the United 
States is the Cantilever span in Poughkeepsie 
bridge—548 feet. 9. The highest railroad bridge in the United 
States is the Kinzua viaduct on the Erie road—305 feet high. 10. 
The first locomotive in the United States was built by Peter 
Cooper. 11. The road carrying the largest number of passengers 
is the Manhattan Elevated Railroad, New York—525,000 a day, 
or 191,625,000 yearly. 12. The average daily earning of an Ameri¬ 
can locomotive is about $100. 13. The longest American railway 

tunnel is the Hoosac, on the Fitchburgh railway—4% miles. 14. 
The average cost of constructing a mile of railroad at the pres¬ 
ent time is about $30,000. 15. The first sleeping-car was used 

upon the Cumberland Valley Railroad of Pennsylvania; from 
1836 to 1848. 16. The chances of fatal accident in rail¬ 

way travel are very slight—one killed in ten million. Statistics 
show more are killed by falling out of windows than in rail¬ 
way accidents. 17. The line of railway extending farthest east 
and west is the Canadian Pacific, running from Quebec to the 
Pacific Ocean. 18. A steel rail, with average wear, lasts 
about eighteen years. 19. The road carrying the largest number 
of commuters is the Illinois Central at Chicago—4,828,128 com¬ 
mutation fares in 1887. 20. The fastest time made between 

Jersey City and San Francisco is 3 days, 7 hours, 39 minutes and 
16 seconds. Special theatrical train, June, 1876. 


Train Management. 

(“ Standard Code.”) ^ 

A train while running must display two green flags by day 
and two green lights by night, one on each side of the rear of 
the train. 

After sunset, or when obscured by fog or other cause, must 
display headlight in front and two red lights’ in rear. 

185 






RAILROADS AND TRANSPORTATION. 

Two green flags by day and two green lights by night, dis¬ 
played in the places provided for that purpose on the front of 
an "engine, denote that the train is followed by another train 
running on the same schedule and entitled to the same time-table 
rights as the train carrying the signals. 

Two white flags by day and two white lights by night, carried 
in the same manner, denote that the train is an extra. 

A blue flag by day and a blue light by night, placed on the 
end of a car, denotes that car inspectors are at work under or 
about the car or train and that it must not be coupled to or 
moved until the blue signal is removed. 





Swinging Lamp Signals. 

I. A lamp swung across the track is the signal to stop. 2. A 
lamp raised and lowered vertically is the signal to move ahead. 
3 . A lamp swung vertically in a circle across the track, when 
the train is standing, is the signal to move back. 4. A lamp 
swung vertically in a circle at arm’s length across the track, 
when the train is running, is the signal that the train has 
parted. 

*** A flag, or the hand, moved in any of the directions given 
above, will indicate the same signal as given by a lamp. 

Colored Flag or Lantern Signals—Torpedoes. 

(“Standard Code.’*) 

Red signifies danger. 

Green signifies caution, go slowly. 

White signifies safety. , 

Green and white signifies stop at flag stations for passengers 
or freight. 

One cap or torpedo on rail means stop immediately. 

Two caps or torpedoes on rail means reduce speed immedi¬ 
ately and look out for danger signal. 

186 










Locomotive Whistle Signals, 

Just one long blast on the whistle,-this style. 

Is a sign of nearing town, 

A railroad crossing or junction, maybe, 

And this —, the brakes whistled down. 

Two long-i-are just the reverse of the last. 

And this-the engine’s reply 

When word comes from the conductor to stop, — 

A sort of cheerful “Aye! aye!” 

These three - will show when the train comes apart. 

This-means two different things; 

That the train will back, or asks you to note 
Some special signal it brings. 

These four-belong to the flagman alone. 

And these-are meant for the crew; 

But this one-, when crossing a road at grade. 

More nearly interests you. 

Five short ones-say to the flagman on guard, 

“Look out for a rear attack!” 

And a lot like this-that a heedless cow 

Or a deaf man is on the track! 

D. B. Barnard. 

Speed on Railroads. 

Speed is hard to average. An average of 48 3-10 miles per 

hour is the fastest regular time in the United States. This is made on the Pennsyl¬ 
vania “ limited” in its run from Jersey City to Philadelphia, 90 miles, in 112 min¬ 
utes. The Flying Dutchman train is supposed to make the fastest time in the 
world, between London and Bristol, 118% miles, in less than two hours. The 
average, however, of even this fast train is only 59*4 miles per hour. There are 
several other trains noted for remarkably fast time on short distances. Sometimes 
a straight and even grade for a distance of 20 miles will permit a train to run at the 
rate of more than a mile a minute. One train on the Canadian Pacific road, from 
Cotaneau to Ottawa, averages 50 miles an hour for a distance of 78 miles. An aver¬ 
age of 38^4 miles an hour is considered fast traveling. 

The largest and fastest passenger engine ever built is said to have been turned 
out of the Rhode Island Locomotive Works, at Providence, for the New York, Pro¬ 
vidence & Boston Railroad Company. She was designed to make the run from 
Providence to Groton, Conn., a distance of 62% miles, including a dead stop at 
Mystic draw-bridge, as required by the statutes of Connecticut, in just 6 aJ 4 minutes, 
pulling at the same time eight cars, four of them Pullmans. 


Steam boating. 

The first idea of steam navigation was contained in a patent 

obtained in England by Hulls in 1736. 

Fitch experimented in steam navigation on the Delaware river in 1783-4. 

Oliver Evans was the next experimenter in steam navigation in 1785-6. 

Ramsey was also an experimenter in Virginia in steam navigation in 1787. 

W. Symington made a trial on the Forth and Clyde with a small but rudely con¬ 
structed model of a steamer in 1789. 

Chancellor Livingston built a steamer on the Hudson in 1797. 
The first experiment in steamboating on the Thames, Eng¬ 
land, was in 1801. 

Mr. Symington repeated his experiments on the Thames with 

success in 1802. 

Fulton built the steamer, the North River, and in 1807 made 
ra passage up the Hudson river to Albany from New York in 
thirty-three hours—the first steam navigation on record. 

The next steamboat was the Car of Neptune, in 1808. 

Fulton built the Orleans at Pittsburgh—the first steamer on 

187 




















.FACTS ABOUT THE THERMOMETER. 


western rivers. It was completed, and made the voyage to New Orleans, a,ooe 
miles, in 1811. 

The first steam vessels of Europe commenced plying on the Clyde in 1812. 

The Savannah, the first steamer to cross the ocean, was of 350 tons burden, and 
sailed for Liverpool from Savannah, Ga.,July 15, 1819. 

Capt. Johnson was paid £10,000, or $50,000, for making the first steam voyage to 
India. The voyage was made on the steamer Enterprise, which sailed from Fal¬ 
mouth, England, Aug. 16, 1825. 

The first war steamer was built in England in 1838. 


Capacity of a Ten-Ton Freight Car. 


Whisky. . . 

.60 barrels. 

Lumber, green. . 

Salt. 

.70 “ 

Lumber, dry.... 

Lime. 

.70 “ 

Barley. 

Flour . 

...90 w 

Wheat. 

Eggs. 

. . . 130 to 160 “ 

Apples. 

Flour. 

.200 sacks. 

Corn. 

Cattle. 

.iS to 20 head. 

Potatoes. 

Hogs. 

.t;o to 60 u 

Oats.. 

Sheep. 

... .80 to IOO “ 

Bran. 


6,000 feet. 
10,000 feet. 
300 bush. 
340 “ 

370 “ 

400 „ “ 
430 “ 

680 “ 

1,000 “ 


Facts About the Thermometer. 



Reaumur. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Freezing Point. 

0 

0 

32 

Vine Cultivation. 

8 

10 

50 

Cotton Cultivation.... 

... 1 G 

20 

68 

Temperature of Brazil. 

... 24 

30 

87 

Hatching Eggs. 

... 32 

40 

104 


40 

50 

122 


48 

60 

140 


56 

70 

158 


G 4 

80 

176 


72 

90 

194 

Water boils. 

... 80 

100 

212 


Ice melts at 32 0 ; temperature of globe, 50°; blood heat, 98°; alcohol boils, 174 0 ; 
water boils, 212 0 ; lead melts, 594 0 ; heat of common fire, 1,140°; brass melts, 2,233°; 
Iron melts, 3,479°. 


Comparison of Thermometric Scales. 

To convert the degrees of Centigrade into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, 
divide by 5, and add 32. 

To convert degrees of Centigrade into those of Reaumur, multiply by 4, and 
divide by 5. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Centigrade, deduct 32, multiply by 
5, and divide by 9. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Reaumur, deduct 32, divide by 
9, and multiply by 4. - 

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Centigrade, multiply by 5, and 
divide by 4. 

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide 
*>y 4 .. and add 32. 

In De Lisle’s thermometer, used in Russia, the gradation begins at boiling point, 
which is marked zero, and the freezing point is 150. 

188 



























FREEZING, FUSING AND BOILING POINTS. 


Substances. 

Reaumur. 

Centi¬ 

grade. 

Fahren¬ 

heit. 

Freezing— 




Rrnminp freezes at . 

—16° 

_20° 

— 40 

Oil Anise. 

8 

10 

50 

“ Olive. .. 

8 

10 

50 

“ Rose. 

12 

15 

60 

Onirksil ver. ... ... 

—31 5 

_39 4 

—39 

Water.... 

_ 1 

0 

32 

Fusing— 


Bismuth metal fuses at. 

200 

264 

507 

Cadmium .. 

248.8 

315 

592 

Copper. 

874. G 

1093 

2000 

Gold. . 

961 

1200 

2200 

Iodine. 

92 

115 

239 

Iron.. 

1230 

1538 

2800 

Lead. 

255.5 

325 

617 

Potassium. 

46 

58 

136 

Phosphorus .. 

34 

44 

111 

Silver. 

816.8 

1021 

1870 

“ Nitrate. 

159 

198 

389 

Sodium. 

72 

90 

194 

Steel... 

1452 

1856 

3300 

Sulphur. 

72 

90 

194 

Tin.. 

173 

230 

446 

Zinc.. 

328 

410 

770 

Boiling— 




Alcohol boils at. 

63 

78 

173 

Bromine.„ „ „. 

50 

53 

145 

Ether. 

28 

35 

95 

“ Nitrous. 

11 

14 

57 

Iodine. 

140 

175 

347 

Olive Oil. 

252 

315 

600 

Quicksilver.. .. 

280 

350 

662 

Water. 

80 

100 

212 


Dangers of Foul Air.— If the condensed breath collected 
on the cool window panes of a room where a number of persons 
have been assembled be burned, a smell as of singed hair will 
show the presence of organic matter, and if the condensed breath 
be allowed to remain on the windows for a few days, it will be 
found, on examination by the microscope, that it is alive with 
animaculte. It is the inhalation of air containing such putrescent 
matter which causes half of the sick-headaches, which might be 
avoided by a circulation of fresh air. 

m 
















































FREEZING MIXTURES WITHOUT ICE. 

Use water not warmer than 50 0 Fahrenheit. 


Mixtures. 


j- each one part. 


Nitrate Ammonia, 

Water, 

Muriate Ammonia,) , c 

Nitrate of Potash, > each five P arts ' 

Water, sixteen parts..... 

Muriate Ammonia, ) . f . 

Nitrate of Potash, [ each llve P arts - • • 

Sulphate of Soda, eight parts. 

Water, sixteen parts. 

Sulphate of Soda, three parts. 

Dilute Nitric Acid, two parts. 

Nitrate of Ammonia, 1 

Carbonate Soda, V each one part . . 

Water, ) 

Phosphate Soda, nine parts. 

Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts. 

Sulphate of soda, five parts. 

Dilute Sulphuric Acid, four parts. 

Sulphate of Soda, six parts. 

Muriate Ammonia, four parts. 

Nitrate of Potash, two parts. 

Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts. 

Sulphate of Soda, six parts.. 

Nitrate of Ammonia, five parts. •.. 

Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts. 



Down 

to 

Change 

50 ° 

40 

460 

50 

10 

40 

50 

4 

46 

50 

— 3 

53 

50 

— 7 

57 

50 

—12 

62 

50 

3 

47 

50 

—10 

60 

50 

—14 

64 


THE HEBREW RACE. 

The Hebrew race is distributed over the Eastern continent as 
follows : 

In Europe there are 5,400,000; in France, 63,000; Germany, 
562,000, of which Alsace-Loraine contains 39,000 ; Austro- 
Hungary, 1,544,000; Italy, 40,000; Netherlands, 82,000; Rou- 
mania, 265,000; Russia, 2,552,000 ; Turkey, 105.000, and in other 
countries 35,000, Belgium containing the smallest number, only 
3,000. 

In Asia there are 319,000 ; Asiatic Turkey, 47,000, in Palestine 
there being 25,000 ; Asiatic Russia, 47,000 ; Persia, 18,000 ; Mid¬ 
dle Asia, 14,000; India, 19,000, and China, 1,000. 

Africa contains 350.000 ; Egypt, 8,000 ; Tunis, 55,000 ; Algiers, 
35,000; Morocco, 60,000 ; Tripoli, 6,000, and Abyssinia, 200,000. 

The entire number of Hebrews in the world is nearly 6,300,000. 

190 

































PHYSICAL EXERCISE 


T HE principal methods of developing the physique now pre¬ 
scribed by trainers are exercise with dumbbells, the bar bell 
and the chest weight. The rings and horizontal and paral¬ 
lel bars are also used,but not nearly to the extent that they formerly 
were. The movement has been all in the direction of the sim¬ 
plification of apparatus; in fact, one well-known teacher of the 
Boston Gymnasium when asked his opinion said: “Four bare 
walls and a floor, with a well-posted instructor, is all that is 
really required for a gymnasium.” 

Probably the most important as well as the simplest appliance 
for gymnasium work is the wooden dumbbell, which has dis¬ 
placed the ponderous iron bell of former days. Its weight is 
from three-quarters of a pound to a pound and a half, 
and with one in each hand a variety of motions can be gone 
through, which are of immense benefit in building up or toning 
down every muscle and all vital parts of the body. 

The first object of an instructor in taking a beginner in hand 
is to increase the circulation. This is done by exercising the ex¬ 
tremities, the first movement being one of the hands, after 
which come the wrists, then the arms, and next the head and 
feet. As the circulation is increased the necessity for a larger 
supply of oxygen, technically called “oxygen-hunger,” is created, 
which is only satisfied by breathing exercises, which develop 
the lungs. After the circulation is in a satisfactory condition, 
the dumbbell instructor turns his attention to exercising the 
great muscles of the body, beginning with those of the back, 
strengthening which holds the body erect,thus increasing the chest 
capacity, invigorating the digestive organs, and, in fact, all the 
vital functions. By the use of very light weights an equal and 
symmetrical development of all parts of the body is obtained, 
and then there are do sudden demands on the heart and lungs. 

After the dumbbell comes exercise with the round, or bar 
bell. This is like the dumbbell, with the exception that the bar 
connecting the balls is four or five feet, instead of a few inches 
in length. Bar bells weigh from one to two pounds each, and 
are found most useful in building up the respiratory and diges¬ 
tive systems, their especial province being the strengthening of 
the erector muscles and increasing the flexibility of the chest. 

Of all fixed apparatus in use the pulley weight stands easily 
first in importance. These weights are available for a greater 
variety of objects than any other gymnastic appliance, and can 
be used either for general exercise or for strengthening such 
muscles as most require it. With them a greater localization is 
possible than with the dumbbell, and for this reason they are 
recommended as a kind of supplement to the latter. As chest de- 

191 




i. The bar bell—chest expander. 2. Anterior muscular de¬ 
veloper. 3. Developing loins and lumbar region—aid to diges-| 
tion. 4. Side and loin development. 5. Giant pulley exercise) 
—for elevating right side of chest. 6. Developing muscles that 
hold the shoulders back. 7. Developing muscles of front upper 
chest. /8. Posterior development—to make one erect. [192 



























































































PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 


velopers and correctors of round shoulders they are most effec¬ 
tive. As the name implies, they are simply weights attached to 
ropes, which pass over pulleys, and are provided with handles. 
The common pulley is placed at about the height of the shoulder 
of an average man, but recently those which can be adjusted to 
any desired height have been very generally introduced. 

When more special localization is desired than can be ob¬ 
tained by means of the ordinary apparatus, what is known as the 
double-action chest weight is used. This differs from the or¬ 
dinary kind in being provided with several pulleys, so that the 
strain may come at different angles. Double-action weights 
may be divided into three classes—high, low and side pulleys— 
each with its particular use. 

The highest of all, known as the giant pulleys, are made es¬ 
pecially for developing the muscles of the back and chest, and by 
stretching or elongating movements to increase the interior 
capacity of the chest. If the front of the chest is full and the 
back or side chest deficient, the pupil is set to work on the giant 
pulley. To build up the side-walls he stands with the back to 
the pulley-box and the left heel resting against it; the handle is 
grasped in the right hand if the right side of the chest is lacking 
in development, and then drawn straight down by the side; a 
step forward with the right foot, as long as possible, is taken, the 
line brought as far to the front and near the floor as can be done, 
and then the arm, held stiff, allowed to be drawn slowly up by 
the weight. To exercise the left side the same process is gone 
through with, the handle grasped in the left hand. Another 
kind of giant pulley is that which allows the operator to stand 
directly under it, and is used for increasing the lateral diameter 
of the chest. The handles are drawn straight down by the sides, 
the arms are then spread and drawn back by the weights. Gen¬ 
erally speaking, high pulleys are most used for correcting high, 
round shoulders; low pulleys for low, round shoulders; side pul¬ 
leys for individual high or low shoulders, and giant pulleys for 
the development of the walls of the chest and to correct spinal 
curvature. 

The traveling rings, a line of iron rings covered with rubber 
and attached to long ropes fastened to the ceiling some ten feet 
apart, are also valuable in developing the muscles of the back, 
arms and sides. The first ring is grasped in one hand and a 
spring taken from an elevated platform. The momentum carries 
the gymnast to the next ring, which is seized with the free hand, 
and so the entire length of the line is traversed. The parallel 
bars, low and high, the flying rings, the horizontal bar and the 
trapeze all have their uses, but of late years they have been rele¬ 
gated to a position of distinct inferiority to that now occcupied 
by the dumbbells and pulley weights. fl93] 


MEDICINE AND HYGIENE 


Diseases and their Remedies.—PrescriDtions ir Eminent Practitioners. 


I T should be clearly understood, that in all cases of disease, 
the advice of a skillful physician is of the first importance. 
It is not, therefore, intended by the following information 
to supersede the important and necessary practice of the medi¬ 
cal man; but rather, by exhibiting the treatment required, to 
show in what degree his aid is imperative. In cases, however, 
where the disorder may be simple or transient, or in which re¬ 
mote residence, or other circumstances, may deny the privilege 
of medical attendance, the following particulars will be found 
of the utmost value. Moreover, the hints given upon what 
should be avoided will be of great service to the patient, since 
th q physiological is no less important than the medical treatment 
of disease. The numbers refer to prescriptions on pp. 315-318. 

Apoplexy —Lay the head upon a bag of pounded ice, imme¬ 
diate and large bleeding from the arm, cupping neck, leeches to the temples, aperi¬ 
ents Nos. 1 and 7, one or two drops of cotton oil rubbed or dropped on the tongue. 
Avoid excesses, intemperance, animal food. 

Bile, Bilious,or Liver Complaints —Abstinence from malt 
liquor, cool homoeopathic cocoa for drink, no tea or coffee, few vegetables, no broths 
or soups; lean juicy meat not overcooked for dinner, with stale bread occasionally 
and a slice of toasted bacon for breakfast. Nos. 44 and 45. 

Chicken Pox —Mild aperients, No. 4, succeeded by No. 7, and 

No. 8, if much fever accompany the eruption. 

Chilblains —Warm, dry woolen clothing to exposed parts in 

cold weather, as a preventive. In the first stage, friction with No. 48, used cold. 
When ulcers form they should be washed twice daily with carbolic soap and dressed 
with benzoted zinc ointment. Or, chilblains in every stage, whether of simple in¬ 
flammation or open ulcer, may always be successfully treated by Goulard’s extract, 
used pure or applied on lint twice a day. 

Common Continued Fever —Aperients; in the commence¬ 
ment No. 1, followed by No. 7; then diaphoretics, No. 8, and afterwards tonics, No 
13, in the stage of weakness. Avoid all excesses. 

Common Cough —The linctus, No. 42 or No. 43, abstinence 

from malt liquor, and protection from cold, damp air. Avoid cold, damp, and 
draughts. 

Constipation —The observance of a regular period of evac¬ 
uating the bowels, which is most proper in the morning after breakfast. The use of 
mild aperients. No. 37, and brown bread instead of white. There should be an entire 
change in the dietary for a few days while taking opening medicine. 

Consumption —The disease may be complicated with various 

morbid conditions of the lungs and heart, which require appropriate treatment. 
Take cod liver oil, malt and whisky. To allay the cough, No. 32 is an admirable 
remedy. Avoid cold, damp, excitement and over-exertion. 

Convulsions (Children) —If during teething, free lancing 

of the gums, the warm bath, cold applications to the head, leeches to the temples, an 
emetic, and a laxative clyster, No. 20. 

Croup —Leeches to the throat, with hot fomentations as long 
as the attack lasts; the emetic, No. 16, afterwards the aperient, No. 5. Avoid cold 
and damp. Keep the air in the sick-room moistened with steam. 

A Simple Croup Remedy.— Take the white of an egg, stir it 

194 



MEDICINE AND HTGIENE, 


thoroughly into a small quantity of sweetened water, and give it in repeated doses 
until a cure is effected. If one egg is not sufficient, a second, or even a third should 
be used. 

Dropsy —Evacuate the water by means of No. io, and by rub¬ 
bing camphorated oil into the body night and morning. 

Epilepsy —If accompanied or produced by fullness of the ves¬ 
sels of the head, leeches to the temples, blisters, and No. i and No. 7. If from de¬ 
bility or confirmed epilepsy, the mixture No. 18. Avoid drinking and excitement. 
Let the patient alone during the convulsion. 

Eruptions on the Face —The powder, No. 30, internally, 
sponging the face with the lotion No. 31. Avoid excesses in diet. 

Erysipelas— Aperients, if the patient be strong, No. 1, fol¬ 
lowed by No. 7, then tonics. No. 27. No. 27 may be used from the commencement 
for weak subjects. 

Faintness —Effusion of cold water on the face, stimulants to 

the nostrils, pure air, and the recumbent position; afterwards, avoidance of the excit¬ 
ing cause. Avoid excitement. 

Frost-bite and Frozen Limbs —No heating or stimulating 

liquors must be given. Rub the parts affected with ice, cold, or snow water, and 
lay the patient on a cold bed. 

Gout —The aperients No. 1, followed by No. 24, bathing the 
parts with gin-and-water; for drink, weak tea or coffee. Warmth by flannels. Ab¬ 
stain from wines, spirits, and animal food. 

Gravel—N o. 5 , followed by No. 7 , the free use of magnesia as 

an aperient. The pill No. 22. Abstain from fermented drinks and hard water. 
Another form of gravel must be treated by mineral acids, given three times a day. 

Whooping Cough —Whooping cough may be complicated 
with congestion or inflammation of the lungs, or convulsions, and then becomes a 
serious disease. If uncomplicated, No. 43. 

Hysterics —The fit may be prevented by the administration 

of thirty drops of laudanum, and as many of ether. When it has taken place, open 
the windows, loosen the tight parts of the dress, sprinkle cold water on the face, etc. 
A glass of wine or cold water when the patient can swallow. Avoid excitement and 
tight lacing. 

Indigestion —The pills No. 2, with the mixture No. 18, at the 

same time abstinence from veal, pork, mackerel, salmon, pastry, and beer; for drink, 
homoeopathic cocoa, a glass of cold spring water the first thing every morning. 
Avoid excesses. 

Inflammation of the Bladder —Aperients No. 5 and No. 

7, the warm bath, afterwards opium; the pill No. n, three times a day till relieved. 
Avoid fermented liquors, etc. Large quantities of water should be taken, especially 
spring water containing lithia. 

Inflammation of the Bowels —Leeches, blisters, fomenta¬ 
tions, hot baths, iced drinks, the pills No. 19; move the bowels with clysters, if neces¬ 
sary, No. 20. Avoid cold, indigestible food, etc. 

Inflammation of the Brain —Application of cold to the 

head, bleeding from the temples or back of the neck by leeches or cupping; aper¬ 
ients No. 1, followed by No. 7, No. 15. Avoid excitement, study, intemperance. 

Inflammation of the Kidneys— Leeches over the seat of 
pain, aperients No. 5, followed by No. 49; the warm bath. Avoid violent exercise, 
rich living. 

Inflammation of the Liver —Leeches over the right side, 
the seat of pain, blisters, aperients No. 1, followed by No. 7, afterwards the pills No. 
19, till the gums are slightly tender. Avoid cold, damp, intemperance, and anxiety. 

Inflammation of the Lungs— Leeches to seat of pain, 

195 


MEDICINE AND HTGIENE. 


Succeeded by a blister; the demulcent mixture. No. 14, to allay the cough, with the 
powders No. 15, whisky and milk. Avoid cold, damp, and draughts. 

Inflammation of the Stomach —Leeches to the pit of the 

stomach, followed by fomentations, cold iced water for drink, bowels to be evacuated 
by clysters; abstinence from all food except cold gruel, milk and water. Avoid ex¬ 
cesses and condiments. 

Inflammatory Sore Throat —Leeches and blisters ex¬ 
ternally, aperients No. 1, followed by number 7; gargle to clear the throat. No. 17. 
Avoid cold, damp, and draughts. 

Inflamed Eyes —The bowels to be regulated by No. 5, drop 

5 % cocaine solution in the eye every three or four hours, the eye to be bathed with 
No. 35. 

Influenza —No. 4 as an aperient and diaphoretic. No. 14 

to allay fever and cough. No. 28 as a tonic, when weakness only remains. Avoid 
cold and damp, use clothing suited to the changes of temperature. 

Intermittent Fever, or Ague —Take No. 13 during the 
Intermission of the paroxysm of the fever; keeping the bowels free with a wine glass 
of No, 7. Avoid bad air, stagnant pools, etc. 

Itch —The ointment No. 28, or lotion No. 29. 

Jaundice —The pills No. 1, afterwards the mixture No. 7, 

drinking freely of dandelion tea. 

Looseness of the Bowels (English Cholera) —One pill 

No. 19, repeated if necessary; afterwards the mixture No. 21. Avoid unripe fruits, 
acid drinks, ginger beer; wrap flannel around the abdomen. 

Measles —A well-ventilated room, aperients No. 4, with 
No. 14 to allay the cough and fever. 

Menstruation (Excessive) —No. 40 during the attack, 

with rest in the recumbent position; in the intervals, No. 39. 

Menstruation (Scanty) —In strong patients, cupping the 

loins, exercise in the open air, No. 40, the feet in warm water before the expected 
period, the pills No. 38; in weak subjects No. 39. Gentle and regular exercise. 
Avoid hot rooms, and too much sleep. In cases of this description it is desirable to 
apply to a medical man for advice. It maybe useful to many to point out that penny¬ 
royal tea is a simple and useful medicine for inducing the desired result. 

Menstruation (Painful) —No. 41 during the attack; in 

the intervals, No. 38 twice a week, with No. 39. Avoid cold, mental excite- 
Inent, etc. 

Mumps —Fomentation with a decoction of camomiles and 
poppy heads; No. 4 as an aperient, and No. 9 during the stage of fever. Avoid 
cold, and attend to the regularity of the bowels. 

Nervousness —Cheerful society, early rising, exercise in the 

open air, particularly on horseback, and No. 12. Avoid excitement, study, and late 
meals. 

Palpitation of the Heart —The pills No. 2, with the 

mixture No. 12. 

Piles —The paste No. 34, at the same time a regulated diet. 

When the piles are external, or can be reached, one or two applications of Goulard’s 
extract, with an occasional dose of lenitive electuary, will generally succeed in cur¬ 
ing them. 

Quinsy —A blister applied all around the throat; an emetic, 
No. 16, commonly succeeds in breaking the abscess; afterwards the gargle No. 17. 
Avoid cold and damp. 

Rheumatism —Bathe the affected parts with No. 23, and take 
internally No. 24, with No. 23 at bedtime, to ease pain, etc. Avoid damp and cold, 
wear flannel. 


196 


MEDICINE AND HTGIENE. 

Rickets —The powder No. 33, a dry, pure atmosphere, a 

nourishing diet. 

Ringworm —The lotion No. 32, with the occasional use of the 

powder No. 5. Fresh air and cleanliness. 

Scarlet Fever —Well-ventilated room, sponging the body 

when hot with cold or tepid vinegar, or spirit and water; aperients, No. 4; diapho¬ 
retics, No. 8. If dropsy succeed the disappearance of the eruption, frequent purg¬ 
ing with No. 5, succeeded by No. 7. 

Scrofula —Pure air, light but warm clothing, diet of fresh 
animal food; bowels to be regulated by No. 6 and No. 26, taken regularly for a con¬ 
siderable time. 

Scurvy —Fresh animal and vegetable food, and the free use 

of ripe fruits and lemon juice. Avoid cold and damp. 

Smallpox— A well-ventilated apartment, mild aperients; if 
fever be present, No. 7, succeeded by diaphoretics No. 8, and tonics No. 13 in the 
stage of debility, or decline of the eruption. 

St. Vitus Dance —The occasional use, in the commence¬ 
ment, of No. 5, followed by No. 7, afterwards No. 46, 

Thrush —One of the powders No. 6 every other night; in the 
intervals a dessertspoonful of the mixture No. 18 three times a day; white spots to 
be dressed with the honey of borax. 

Tic Doloreux —Regulate the bowels with No. 3, and take, 

in the intervals of pain. No. 27. Avoid cold, damp, and mental anxiety. 

Toothache —Continue the use of No. 3 for a few alternate 

days. Apply liquor ammonise to reduce the pain, and when that is accomplished, 
fill the decayed spots with silver succedaneum without delay, or the pain will re¬ 
turn. A drop of creosote, or a few drops of chloroform on cotton, applied to the 
tooth, or a few grains of camphor placed in the decayed opening, or camphor moist¬ 
ened with turpentine, will often afford instant relief. 

Typhus Fever —Sponging the body with cold or tepid water, 

a well-ventilated apartment, cold applications to the head and temples. Aperients 
No. 4, with refrigerants No. 9, tonics No. 13 in the stage of debility. 

Water on the Brain —Local bleeding by means of leeches, 

blisters, aperients No. 5, and mercurial medicines. No. 15. 

Whites —The mixture No. 36, with the injection No. 37. 

Clothing light but warm, moderate exercise in the open air, country residence. 

Worms in the Intestines —The aperient No. 5, followed 
by No. 7, afterwards the free use of lkne water and milk in equal parts, a pint daily. 
Avoid unwholesome food. 


PRESCRIPTIONS. 

To be used in the cases enumerated under the head “Diseases ” 

{pages 312-315.) 

The following prescriptions, originally derived from various 
preservers’ Pharmacopoeias, and now carefully revised, embody 
the favorite remedies employed by the most eminent physicians: 

1. Take of powdered aloes, nine grains; extract of colocynth, 

compound, eighteen grains; calomel, nine grains; tartrate of antimony, two grains; 
mucilage, sufficient to make a mass, which is divided into six pills; two to be taken 
every twenty-four hours, till they act thoroughly on the bowels; in cases of inflam¬ 
mation, apoplexy, etc. 

2. Powdered rhubarb, Socotrine aloes, and gum mastic, each 

one scruple; make into twelve pills; one before and one after dinner. 

197 



MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 


3. Compound extract of colocynth, extract of jalap, and Castile 

SOap, of each one scruple; make into twelve pills. 

4 . James’ powder, five grains; calomel, three grains, in fevers, 
for adults. For children, the following: Powdered camphor, one scruple; calomel 
and powdered scammony, of each nine grains; James’ powder, 5»x grains; mix, and 
divide into six powders. Half of one powder twice a day for an infant a year old; a 
whole powder for two years; and for four years, the same three times a day. 

5. James’ powder, six grains; powdered jalap, ten grains, mix, 
and divide into three or four powders, according to the child’s age: an one powder if 
for an adult. 

6. Powdered rnubarb, four grains; mercury and chalk, three 

grains; ginger in powder, one grain; an alterative aperient for children. 

7 . Fluid extract cascara, six drams; tincture aloes four 
drams; tincture hyoscyamus, four drams; neutralizing cordial, two ounces; 
dessertspoonful every four hours until the bowels move freely. 

8. Nitrate of potass, one dram and a half; spirits of nitric 
ether, half an ounce; camphor mixture, and the spirit of mindererus, each four ounces; 
in fevers, etc.; two tablespoonfuls, three times a day, and for children a dessert¬ 
spoonful every four hours. 

9 . Spirit of nitric ether, three drams; dilute nitric acid, two 

drams; syrup, three drams; camphor mixture, seven ounces; in fevers, etc., 
with debility; dose as in preceding prescription. 

10. Decoction of broom, half a pint; cream of tartar, one 

ounce; tincture of squills, two drams; in dropsies; a third part three times a day, 

11. Pills of soap and opium, five grains for a dose, as directed. 

12. Ammoniated tincture of valerian, six drams; camphor 
mixture, seven ounces; a fourth part three times a day; in spasmodic and hysterical 
disorders. 

13 . Bisulphate of quinia, half a dram; dilute sulphuric acid, 
twenty drops; compound infusion of roses, eight ounces; two tablespoonfuls every 
four hours, in intermittent and other fevers, during the absence of the paroxysm. 

14 . Almond mixture, seven ounces and a half; wine of an¬ 
timony and ipecacuanha, of each one dram and a half; a tablespoonful every four 
hours; in cough with fever, etc. 

15 . Calomel, one grain, powdered white sugar, two grains; 
to make a powder to be placed on the tongue every two or three hours. Should the 
calomel act on the bowels, powdered kino is to be substituted for the sugar. 

16 . Antimony and ipecacuanha wines, of each an ounce; a 
teaspoonful every ten minutes for a child till vomiting is produced; but for an adult 
a large tablespoonful should be taken. 

17 . Compound infusion of roses, seven ounces; tincture of 

inyrrh, one ounce. 

18 . Infusion of orange peel, seven ounces; tincture of hops, 
half an ounce; and a dram of carbonate of soda; two tablespoonfuls twice a day. 
Or infusion of valerian, seven ounces; carbonate of ammonia, two scruples; compound 
tincture of bark, six drams; spirits of ether, two drams; one tablespoonful every 
twenty-four hours. 

19 . Blue pill, four grains; opium, half a grain; to be taken 

three times a day. 

20. For a Clyster—A pint and a half of gruel or fat broth, 

atablespoonful of castor oil, one of common salt, and a lump ofbutter; mix, to be in¬ 
jected slowly. A third of this quantity is enough for an infant. 

21. Chalk mixture, seven ounces; aromatic and opiate con¬ 
fection, of each one dram; tincture of catechu, six drams; two tablespoonfuls 
every two hours. 


198 


MEDICINE AND IITGIENE. 

22. Carbonate of soda, powdered rhubarb, and Castile soap, 

each one dram; make thirty-six pills; three twice a day. 

23 . Lotion—-Common salt, one ounce; distilled water, seven 

ounces; spirits ot wine, one ounce; mix. 

24 . Dried sulphate ot magnesia, six drams; heavy carbon¬ 
ate of magnesia, two drams; wine of colchicum, two drams; water, eight 
ounces; take two tablespoonfuls every four hours. 

25 . Compound powder of ipecacuanha, ten grains; powdered 

guaiacum, four grains; in a powder at bedtime. 

26 . Brandish’s solution of potash; thirty drops twice a day in a 

wineglass of beer. 

27 . Bisulphate of quinia, half a dram; dilute sulphuric acid, 
ten drops; compound infusion of roses, eight ounces; two tablespoonfuls every eight 
hours, and as a tonic in the stage of weakness succeeding fever. 

28 . Flowers of sulphur, two ounces; hog’s lard, four ounces; 

white hellebore powder, half an ounce; oil of lavender, sixty drops. 

29 . Iodide of potass, two drams; distilled water, eight 

ounces. * 

30 . Flowers of sulphur, half a dram; carbonate of soda, a 

scruple; tartarized antimony, one-eighth of a grain; one powder night and morning, 
in eruptions of the skin or face. 

31 . Milk of bitter almonds, seven ounces; bichloride of mer¬ 
cury, four grains; spirits of rosemary, one ounce; bathe the eruption with this lotion 
three times a day. 

32 . Sulphate of zinc, two scruples; sugar of lead, fifteen grains; 
distilled water, six ounces; the parts to be washed with the lotion three times a 
day. 

33 . Carbonate of iron, six grains; powdered rhubarb, four 

grains; one powder night and morning. 

34 . Aromatic powder and pepsin, each one dram; make 

twelve powders; one three or four times a,day. 

35 . Sulphate of zinc, twelve grains; wine of opium, one 

dram; rosewater, six ounces. 

36 . Sulphate of magnesia, six drams; sulphate of iron, ten 

grains; diluted sulphuric acid, forty drops; tincture of cardamoms (compound), halt 
an ounce; water, seven ounces; a fourth part night and morning. 

37 . Decoction of oak bark, a pint; dried alum, half an ounce; 

for an injection; a syringe full to be used night and morning. 

38 . Compound gamboge pill and a pill of asafoetida and aloes; 

of each half a dram; make twelve pills; two twice or three times a week. 

39. Griffith’s mixture—one tablespoonful three times a 

day. 

40 . Ergot of rye, five grains; in a powder, to be taken every 

four hours. This should only be taken under medical advice and sanction. 

41 . Powdered opium, half a grain; camphor, two grains, in a 

pill; to be taken every three or four hours whilst in pain. 

42 . Syrup of balsam of tolu, two ounces; the muriate of mor¬ 

phia, two grains; muriatic acid, twenty drops; a teaspoonful twice a day. 

43 . Salts of tartar, two scruples; twenty grains of powdered 

cochineal; % lb of honey; water, half a pint; boil and give a tablespoonful three 
times a day. . 

44. Calomel, ten grains; Castile soap, extract of jalap, extract 

of colocynth, of each one scruple; oil of juniper, fivedrops; make into fifteen pills; 

one three times a day. 


199 


MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 


45. Infusion of orange peel, eight ounces; carbonate of soda, 
gne dram; and compound tincture of cardamoms, half an ounce; take a table* 
spoonful three times a day succeeding the pills. 

46. Carbonate of iron, three ounces; syrup of ginger sufficient 

to make an electuary; a teaspoonful three times a day. 

47. Take of Castile soap, compound extract of colocvnth, com¬ 
pound rhubarb pill and the extract of jalap, each one scruple; oil of caraway, ten 
drops; make into twenty pills, and take one after dinner every day whilst neces¬ 
sary. 

48. Spirit of rosemary, five parts; spirit of wine, or spirit ot 
turpentine, one part. 

49. Take of thick mucilage, one ounce; castor oil, twelve 

drams; make into an emulsion; add mint water, four ounces; spirit of nitre, 
three drams; laudanum, one dram; mixture of squills, one dram; and syrup, 
seven drams; mix; two tablespoonfuls every six hours. 

Rules for the Preservation of Health. 

Pure Atmospheric Air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen and 

a very small proportion of carbonic acid gas. Air once breathed has lost the chief 
part of its oxygen and acquired a proportionate increase of carbonic acid gas. 
Therefore, health requires that we breathe the same air once only. 

The Solid Part of our Bodies is continually wasting and 

requires to be repaired by fresh substances. Therefore, food which is to repair the 
loss should be taken with due regard to the exercise and waste of the body. 

The Fluid Part of our Bodies also wastes constantly; 
there is but one fluid in animals, which is water. Therefore, water only is neces¬ 
sary, and no artifice can produce a better drink. 

The Fluid of our Bodies is to the solid in proportion as nine 

to one. Therefore, a like proportion should prevail in the total amount of food 
taken. 

Light Exercises an Important Influence upon the 

growth and vigor of animals and plants. Therefore, our dwellings should freely 
admit the solar rays. 

Decomposing Animal and Vegetable Substances yield 

various noxious gases which enter the lungs and corrupt the blood. Therefore, 
all impurities should be kept away from our abodes, and every precaution be ob¬ 
served to secure a pure atmosphere. 

Warmth is Essential to all the bodily functions. Therefore, 

an equal bodily temperature should be maintained by exercise, by clothing or by 
fire. 

Exercise Warms, Invigorates and purifies the body; cloth¬ 
ing preserves the warmth the body generates; fire imparts warmth externally. 
Therefore, to obtain and preserve warmth, exercise and clothing are preferable to 
fire. 

Mental and Bodily Exercise are equally essential to the 

general health and happiness. Therefore, labor and study should succeed each 
other. 

Man will live most Healthily upon simple solids and 

fluids, of which a sufficient but temperate quantity should be taken. Therefore, over- 
indulgence in strong drinks, tobacco, snuff, opium, and all mere indulgences, should 
be avoided. 

Sudden Alternations of Heat and Cold are dangerous 

(especially to the young and the aged). Therefore, clothing, in quality and quantity, 
should be adapted to the alternations of night and day and of the seasons; and 
drinking cold water when the body is hot, and hot tea and soups wheiv cold, are 
productive of many evils. 


200 


MEDICINE AND HTGIENE. 

The Skin is a Highly Organized Membrane full of 

minute pores, cells, blood vessels and nerves; it imbibes moisture or throws it off, ac¬ 
cording to the state of the atmosphere and the temperature of the body. It also 
‘breathes, as do the lungs (though less actively). All the internal organs sympa¬ 
thize with the skin. Therefore, it should be repeatedly cleansed. 

£ ire Consumes the Oxygen of the air and produces noxious 

gases. Therefore, the air is less pure in the presence of candies, gas or coal fire, 
than otherwise, and the deterioration should be repaired by increased ventilation. 

Late Hours and Anxious Pursuits exhaust the nervous 
system and produce disease and premature death. Therefore, the hours of labor 
and study should be short. 

Moderation in Eating and drinking, short hours of labor 

and study, regularity in exercise, recreation and rest, cleanliness, equanimity of 
temper and equality of temperature—these are the great essentials to that which 
surpasses all wealth, health of mind and body. 

HOMOEOPATHY. 

Principles of Homoeopathy. —As homoeopathy is nowprac- 
ticed so widely, and, indeed, preferred to the older system in 
many families, this department could scarcely lay claim to be 
considered complete without a brief mention of the principal 
remedies used and recommended by homoeopathic practitioners, 
and the disorders for which these remedies are especially appli¬ 
cable. The principle of homoeopathy is set forth in the Latin 
words “similia similibus curantur ,” the meaning of which is 
“likes are cured by likes.” The homoeopathist, in order to cure 
a disease, administers a medicine which would produce in a per¬ 
fectly healthy subject symptoms like but not identical with, or 
the same as, the symptoms to counteract which the medicine is 
given. He, therefore, first makes himself thoroughly acquainted 
with the symptoms that are exhibited by the sufferer; having 
ascertained these, in order to neutralize them and restore the 
state of the patient’s health to a state of equilibrium, so to speak, 
he administers preparations that would produce symptoms of a 
like character in persons in good health. It is not said, be it 
remembered, that the drug can produce in a healthy person the 
disease from which the patient is suffering; it is only advanced 
by homceopathists that the drug given has the power of pro¬ 
ducing in a person in health symptoms similar to those-of the 
disease under which the patient is languishing, and that the cor¬ 
rect mode of treatment is to counteract the disease symptoms 
by the artificial production of similar symptoms by medical 
means, or, in other words, to suit the medicine to the disorder, 
by the previously acquired knowledge of the effects of the drug 
by experiment on a healthy person. 

Homoeopathic Remedies are given in the form of globules 
or tinctures, the latter being generally preferred by homoeopathic 
practitioners. When contrasted with the doses of drugs given by 
allopathists, the small doses administered by homceopathists 

201 


HOMCEOPA TJITC REMEDIES. 


must at first sight appear wholly inadequate to the purpose for 
which they are given; but homoeopathists, whose dilution and 
trituration diffuse the drug given throughout the vehicle in 
which it is administered, argue that by this extension of its sur~ 
face the active power of the drug is greatly increased. Large 
doses of certain drugs administered for certain purposes will pass 
through the system without in any way affecting those organs 
which will be acted on most powerfully by the very same drugs 
when administered in much smaller doses. Thus a small dose 
of sweet spirit of nitre will act on the skin and promote perspi¬ 
ration, but a large dose will act as a diuretic only and exert no 
influence on the skin. 

Great stress is laid by homoeopathists on attention to diet, but 
not so much so in the present day as when the system was first in¬ 
troduced. The reader will find a list of articles of food that may 
and may not be taken in a succeeding page. Below are given 
briefly a few of the more common ailments “that flesh is heir 
to,” with the symptoms by which they are indicated and the 
medicines by which they may be alleviated and eventually 
cured. 

Asthma, an ailment which should be referred in all cases to 

the medical practitioner. Symptoms. Difficulty in breathing, with cough, either 
spasmodic and without expectoration, or accompanied with much expectoration. 
Medicines. Aconitum napellus, especially with congestion or slight spitting of 
blood; Antimonium tartaricum for rattling and wheezing in the chest; Arsenicum for 
chronic asthma; Ipecacuanha; Nux vomica. 

Bilious Attacks, if attended with diarrhoea and copious 

evacuations of a bright yellow color. Medicines. Bryonia, if arising from sedentary 
occupation, or from eating and drinking too freely; or Nux vomica and Mercurius in 
alternation, the former correcting constipation and the latter nausea, fullness at the 
pit of the stomach and a foul tongue. 

Bronchitis. Symptoms. Catarrh, accompanied with fever; ex¬ 
pectoration, dark, thick, and sometimes streaked with blood; urine dark, thick and 
scanty. Medicines. Aconitum napellus; especially in earlier stages; Bryonia for 
pain in coughing and difficulty in breathing; Antimonium tartaricum, loose cough, 
with much expectoration, and a feeling of, and tendency to, suffocation; ipecacu¬ 
anha, accumulation of phlegm in bronchial tubes and for children. 

Bruises and Wounds.—F or all bruises, black eyes, etc., apply 
Arnica lotion; for slight wounds, after washing well with cold water, apply Arnica 
plaster; to stop bleeding, when ordinary means fail, and for larger wounds apply 
concentrated tincture of Calendula. 

Cold in the Head or Catarrh. Symptoms. Feverish 

feeling generally, and especially about the head, eyes, and nose, running from, and 
obstruction of nose;soreness and irritation of the throat and bronchial tubes. Medicines. 
Aconitum napellus for feverish symptoms; Belladonna for sore throat and headache 
with inclination to cough; Mercurius for running from nose and sneezing; Nux 
vomica for stoppage of nostrils; Chamomilla for children and women, for whom 
Pulsatilla is also useful in such cases. 

Chilblains. Symptoms. Irritation and itching of the skin, 

which assumes a bluish red color. Medicines. Arnica montana, taken internally 
or used as outward application, unless the chilblain be. broken, when Arsenicum 
should be used. If the swelling andirritation do not yield to theseremedies, use 
Belladona and Rhus toxicodendron. 


202 


HO MCE OP A THIC REMEDIES. 


Cholera, i. Bilious cholera. Symptoms. Nausea, proceed¬ 
ing to vomiting, griping of the bowels, watery and offensive evacuations, in which 
much bile is present, accompanied with weakness and depression. Medicines. 
Bryonia, with ipecacuanha at commencement of attack. 2. Malignant or Asiatic 
cholera. Symptoms as in bilious cholera, but in a more aggravated form, followed 
by what is called the “cold stage,” marked by great severity of griping pain in stomach 
accompanied with frequent and copious vatery evacuations, and presently with cramps 
in all parts of the body; after which the extremities become chilled, the pulse 
scarcely discernible, the result of which is stupor and ultimately death. Medicines. 
Camphor in the form of tincture, in frequent doses, until the sufferer begins to feel 
warmth returning to the body, and perspiration ensues. In the latter stages. 
Cuprum and Veratrum. 

Tincture of Camphor is one of the most useful of the homoeo¬ 
pathic remedies in all cases of colic, diarrhoea, etc. In ordinary cases fifteen drops 
on sugar may be taken every quarter of an hour until the pain is allayed. In more 
aggravated cases, and in cases of cholera, a few drops maybe taken at intervals of 
from two to five minutes. A dose of fifteen drops of camphor on sugar tends to 
counteract a chill if taken soon after premonitory symptoms show themselves, and 
act as a prophylactic against cold. 

Colic or Stomach Ache. —This disorder is indicated by 

griping pains in the bowels, which sometimes extend upwards into and over the 
region of the chest. Sometimes the pain is attended with vomiting and cold per¬ 
spiration. A warm bath is useful, and hot flannels, or a jar or bottle filled with hot 
water should be applied to the abdomen. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, especially 
when the abdomen is tender to the touch, and the patient is feverish; Belladonna for 
severe griping and spasmodic pains; Bryonia for bilious colic and diarrhoea; Chamo- 
milla for children. 

Constipation. —Women are more subject than men to this 

confined state of the bowels,which will, in many cases, yield to exercise, plain, nutri¬ 
tious diet, with vegetables and cooked fruit, and but little bread, and an enema of 
milk and water, or thin gruel if it is some time since there has been any action of the 
bowels. Medicines. Bryonia, especially for rheumatic patients, and disturbed state 
of the stomach; Nux vomica, for persons of sedentary habits, especially males; Pul¬ 
satilla, for women; Sulphur, for constipation that is habitual or of long continuance. 

Convulsions. —For convulsions arising from whatever cause, 
a warm bath is desirable, and a milk and water enema, if the child’s bowels are con¬ 
fined. Medicines. Belladonna and Chamomilla, if the convulsions are caused 
by teething, with Aconitum napellus if the little patient be feverish; Aconitum 
napellus, Cina, and Belladonna, for convulsions caused by worms; Aconite and Cof- 
foea, when they arise from fright; Ipecacuanha and Nux vomica, when they have 
been caused by repletion, or food that is difficult of digestion. 

Cough.—F or this disorder, a light farinaceous diet is desirable, 

with plenty of out-door exercise and constant use of the sponging-bath. Medicines. 
Aconitum napellus, for a hard, dry, hacking cough; Antimonium, for cough with 
wheezing and difficulty of expectoration; Belladonna, for spasmodic cough, with 
tickling in the throat, or sore throat; Bryonia, for hard, dry cough, with expectora¬ 
tions streaked with blood; ipecacuanha, for children. 

Croup. —As this disorder frequently and quickly terminates 
fatally, recourse should be had to a duly qualified practitioner as soon as possible. 
The disease lies chiefly in the larynx and bronchial tubes, and is easy recognizable 
by the sharp, barking sound of the cough. A warm bath and mustard poultice will 
often tend to give relief. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, in the earlier stages of 
the disorder, and Spongia and Hepar sulphuris, in the more advanced stages, the 
latter medicine being desirable when the cough is not so violent and the breathing 
easier. 

Diarrhcea. —The medicines to be used in this disorder are 
those which are mentioned under colic and bilious attacks. 

Dysentery is somewhat similar to diarrhcea, but the symp- 

203 


HOMCEOPA rilTC REMEDIES. 

toms are more aggravated in character, and the evacuations are chiefly mucus streaked 
with blood. As a local remedy hot flannels or a stone jar filled with hot water and 
wrapped in flannel should be applied to the abdomen. Medicines. Colocynthis 
and Mercurius in alternation. 

Dyspepsia or Indigestion arises from weakness of the 

digestive organs. Symptoms. Chief among these are habitual costiveness, heartburn 
and nausea, disinclination to eat, listlessness and weakness, accompanied with fatigue 
after walking etc., restlessness and disturbed sleep at night, bad taste in the 
mouth, with white tongue, especially in the morning, accompanied at times with 
fullness in the region of the stomach,and flatulence,which causes disturbance of the 
heart. The causes of indigestion are too numerous to be mentioned here, but they 
may be inferred when it is said that scrupulous attention must be paid to diet (see 
p. 324); that meals should be taken at regular and not too long intervals: that 
warm drinks, stimulants and tobacco should be avoided; that early and regular 
hours should be kept, with a cold or chilled sponge bath every morning; and that 
measures should be taken to obtain a fair amount ofexercise, and to provide suita¬ 
ble occupation for both body and mind during the day. Medicines. Arnica montana 
for persons who are nervous and irritable, and suffer much from headache; Bryonia 
for persons who are bilious and subject to rheumatism, and those who are listless and 
disinclined to eat, andhave an unpleasant bitter taste in the mouth; flepar sulphuris 
for chronic indigestion and costiveness, attended with tendency to vomit in the 
morning; Mercurius in cases of flatulence, combined with costiveness; Nux vomica 
for indigestion that makes itselffelt from 2 a. m. to 4 a. m., or thereabouts, with loss 
of appetite and nausea in the morning, and for persons with a tendency to piles, and 
those who are engaged in sedentary occupations; Pulsatilla for women generally, 
and Chamomilia for children. 

Fevers.— For all fevers of a serious character, such as scarlet 
fever, typhus fever, typhoid fever, gastric fever, intermittent fever, or ague, etc., it 
is better to send at once for a medical man. Incases of ordinary fever, indicated 
by alternate flushes and shivering, a hot dry skin, rapid pulse, and dry, foul tongue, 
the patient should have a warm bath, take but little nourishment, and drink cold 
water. Medicine. Aconitum napellus. 

Flatulency.—T his disorder, which arises from, and is a symp¬ 
tom of indigestion, frequently affects respiration, and causes disturbance and quick¬ 
ened action of the heart. The patient should pay attention to diet, as for dys¬ 
pepsia. Medicines. Cina and Nux vomica; Pulsatilla for women, and Chamo¬ 
milia for children. See Dyspepsia. 

Headache.— This disorder proceeds from s 6 many various 
causes, which require different treatment, that it is wiser to apply at once to a regu¬ 
lar homoeopathic practitioner, and especially in headache of frequent occurrence. 
Medicines. Nux vomica when headache is caused by indigestion; Pulsatilla being 
useful for women; Belladonna and Ignatia, for sick headache; Aconitum napellus 
and Arsenicum for nervous headache. 

Heartburn.— For this unpleasant sensation of heat, arising 
from the stomach, accompanied by a bitter taste, and sometimes by nausea, Nux 
vomica is a good medicine. Pulsatilla may be taken by women. 

Indigestion.— See Dyspepsia. 

Measles.— This complaint, which seldom attacks adults, is in¬ 
dicated in its early stage by the usual accompaniments and signs of a severe cold in 
the head—namely, sneezing, running from the nose and eyelids, which are swol¬ 
len. The sufferer also coughs, does not care to eat, and feels sick and restless. 
About four days after the first appearance of these premonitory symptoms, a red 
rash comes out over the face, neck and body, which dies away, and finally disap¬ 
pears in about five days. The patient should be kept warm, and remain in one room 
during the continuance ot the disorder, and especially while the rash is out, lest, 
through exposure to cold in any way, the rash may be checked and driven inwards. 
Medicines. Aconitum napellus, and Pulsatilla, which are sufficient for all ordinary 
cases. If there be much fever. Belladonna; and if the rash be driven in by a chill, 
Bryonia. 


204 


HOMCEOPA THIC REMEDIES . 

Mumps. —This disorder is sometimes consequent on measles. 

It is indicated by the swelling of the glands under the ear and lower jaw. It is far 
more painful than dangerous. Fomenting with warm water is useful. Medicines. 
Mercurius generally; Belladonna may be used when mumps follow an attack of 
measles. 

N ettler ash.— This rash, so called because in appearance it re¬ 
sembles the swelling and redness caused by the sting of a nettle, is generally pro¬ 
duced by a disordered state of the stomach. Medicines. Aconitumnapellus, Nux- 
vomica, or Pulsatilla, in ordinary cases; Arsenicum is useful if there is much fever; 
Belladonna if the rash is accompanied with headache. 

Piles.— The ordinary homoeopathic remedies for this painful 
complaint are Nux vomica and Sulphur. 

Sprains.— Apply to the part affected a lotion of one part of 
tincture of Arnica to two of water. For persons who cannot use Arnica, in conse¬ 
quence of the irritation produced by it, a lotion of tincture of Calendula may be 
used in the proportion of one part of the tincture to four of water. 

Teething.— Infants and very young children frequently ex¬ 
perience much pain in the mouth during dentition, and especially when the tooth is 
making its way through the gum. The child is often feverish, the mouth and gums 
hot and tender, and the face flushed. There is also much running from the mouth, 
and the bowels are disturbed, being in some cases confined, and in others relaxed, 
approaching to diarrhoea. Medicines. These are Aconitum napellus, in ordinary 
cases; Nux vomica, when the bowels are confined; Chamomilla, when the bowels 
are relaxed; Mercurius, if the relaxed state of the bowels has deepened into diarrhoea; 
Belladonna, if there be symptoms of disturbance of the brain. 

W hooping Cough. —This disease is sometimes of long duration, 

for if it shows itselfin the autumn or winter months, the little patient will frequently 
retain cough untilMay or evenjune,when it disappears with return of warmer weather. 
Change of air when practicable is desirable, especially when the cough has been of 
long continuance. In this cough there are three stages. In the first the symptoms 
are those of an ordinary cold in the head and cough. In the second the cough be¬ 
comes hard, dry and rapid, and the inhalation ot the air, after or during the par¬ 
oxysm of the coughing, produces a peculiar’sound from which the disease is named. 
In the final stage the cough occurs at longer intervals, and the paroxysms are less 
violent and ultimately disappear. In this stage the disease is subject to fluctuation, 
the cough again increasing in frequency of occurrence and intensity if the patient 
has been unduly exposed to cold or damp, or if the weather is very changeable. 
Children suffering from whooping-cough should have a light nourishing diet and 
only go out when the weather is mild and warm. Medicines. Aconitum napellus 
in the very commencement of the disorder, followed by Ipecacuanha and Nux 
vomica when the second stage is just approaching and during its continuance. 
These medicines may be continued if necessary during the third stage. 

Worms.— The presence of worms is indicated by irritation of 
the membrane of the nose, causing the child to thrust its finger into the nostrils; by 
irritation of the lower part of the body; by thinness, excessive appetite and restless¬ 
ness in sleep. Children suffering from worms should eat meat freely and not take 
so much bread, vegetables, and farinaceous food as children generally do. They 
should have as much exercise as possible'in the open air, and be sponged with cold 
water every morning. The worms that mostly trouble children are the thread 
worms, which are present chiefly in the lower portion of the intestines, and the 
roundworm. Medicine, Sr’c. Administer an injection of weak salt-and-water, and 
give Aconitum napellus, to be followed by Ignatia and Sulphur in the order in which 
they are here given. These are the usual remedies for thread worms.. For round 
worms, whose presence in the stomach is indicated by great thinness, sickness and 
discomfort, and pain in the stomach, Aconitum napellus, Cina, Ignatia, and Sulphur 
are given. ,. 

Extent of Doses in Homceopathy. — Homoeopathic medi¬ 
cines are given in the form ol globules, pilules, or tincture, the last-named being 

205 


ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OF INFANTS. 

generally preferred. The average doses for adults are from half a drop to one drop of 
the tincture given in a tablespoonful of water, from two to four pilules, or from three to 
six globules. In using the tincture it is usual to measure out a few tablespoonfuls of 
water and to add to it a certain number of drops regulated by the quantity of water 
that is used. For children medicine is mixed at the same strength, but a less quan¬ 
tity is given. The proper quantity for a dose is always given in books and manuals 
for the homoeopathic treatment of disease. Small cases of the principal medicines 
used in homoeopathy can be procured from most druggists, and with each case a little 
book showing the symptoms and treatment of all ordinary complaints is usually given. 

Diet in Homoeopathy. —The articles of food that are chiefly 
recommended when attention to diet Is necessary are stale bread, beef, mutton, 
poultry, fresh game, fish, chiefly cod and flat fish, avoiding mackerel, etc., eggs and 
oysters. Rice, sago, tapioca, and arrowroot are permitted, as are also potatoes, car¬ 
rots, turnips, broccoli, cauliflower, asparagus, French beans, and broad beans. 
Water, milk, cocoa and chocolate may be drunk. It is desirable to avoid all things 
that are not specified in the foregoing list. Ripe fruit may be eaten, but unripe 
fruit, unless cooked, should be scrupulously avoided. 

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OF INFANTS. 

The following formula, by a physician of high standing, has 
been found beneficial in numerous cases where everything else 
failed to produce satisfactory results. In the author’s own fam¬ 
ily, it saved the life of an infant daughter who had been given 
up by an old practitioner, but who, it seems, was dying simply 
from lack of proper nourishment. She is now a rosy, robust 
child, in perfect health, and the pet of the household. The vir¬ 
tue of this formula consists in the fact that it most nearly corre¬ 
sponds to the natural nourishment from a healthy mother’s 
breast. In using this formula care should be taken to use only 
absolutely pure water, and all bottles and vessels should be scru¬ 
pulously clean. The cream and milk should be from one cow only: 

Take two tablespoonfuls of cream, two tablespoonfuls of lime 
water, one tablespoonful of good milk, three tablespoonfuls of a 
solution of sugar of milk containing eighteen drams to one pint 
of pure water. 

This quantity warmed is enoughfor once feeding a child of four months. For an 
older child add one teaspoonful of milk to the mixture for each month over four. 
For a younger child, diminish the quantity of milk in the same ratio. 

The child should be fed every two hours and a half during the day and 
evening and as little as possible at night. 

If the child be constipated, substitute barley water for lime water. In preparing 
the barley water a porcelain-lined kettle should be employed if possible. Use best 
pearl barley, and boil to a very thin gruel, which strain. 

Each feeding must, of course, be made fresh, although the barley water and the 
sugar-of-milk solution may be made in quantities. 

Cholera Mixture —Take equal parts of tincture of cayenne, 
tincture of opium, tincture of rhubarb, essence of peppermint, 
and spirits of camphor. Mix well. Dose, 15 to 30 drops in a 
wine-glass of water, according to age and violence of the attack. 
Repeat every fifteen or twenty minutes until relief is obtained. 

Cure for Hiccough— Sit erect and inflate the lungs fully. 
Then, retaining the breath, bend forward slowly until the chest 

m 


i 




CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 


meets the knees. After slowly arising again to the erect posi¬ 
tion, slowly exhale the breath. Repeat this process a second 
time, and the nerves will be found to have received an access of 
energy, that will enable them to perform their natural functions. 

Choking —A piece of food lodged in the throat may some¬ 
times be pushed down with the finger, or removed with a hair¬ 
pin quickly straightened and hooked at the end, or by two or 
three vigorous blows on the back between the shoulders. 

Contagious Diseases. 


The following points will help to determine the nature of a 
suspicious illness: 


Disease. 

Rash or Eruption. 

Appearance. 

Durati’n 
in days. 

Remarks. 

Chicken-pox .. 

Small rose pimples 

2d day of fever 

6-7 

Scabs from about 


changing to vesi- 

or after 24 h’rs’ 


fourth day of 


cles. 

illness.. 


fever. 

Erysipelas. 

Diffuse redness and 

2d or 3d day of 




swelling. 

illness.. 



Measles. 

Small red dots like 

4th day of fever 

6-10 

Rash fades 0 n 


flea bites. 

or after 72 


7 th day. 



hours’ illness. . 



Scarlet Fever. 

Bright scarlet, dif- 

2d day of fever 

8-10 

Rash fades 0 n 


fused. 

or after 24 


5th day. 



hours’ illness.. 



Small-pox. 

Small red pimples 

3d day of fever 

14-21 

Scabs form 9th or 


changing to vesi- 

or after 48 


10th day, fall off 


cles, then pustules 

hours’ illness . 


about 14th. 

Typhoid Fever. 

Rose-colored spots 

nth to 14th day. 

22-30 

Accompanied by 


scattered . 



diarrhoea. 


It will often relieve a mother’s anxiety to know how long 
there is danger of infection after a child has been exposed to a 
contagious disease. The following table gives the information 
concerning the more important diseases: 


Disease. 

Symptoms 

appear. 

Period 
ranges from 

Patient is Infectious. 

Chicken-pox. 

On 14th day 
“ 2d day 
" 14th day 
“ 19th day 
“ 14th day 
“ 4th day 
“ 12th day 
“ 21st day 
“ 14th day 

10-18 days 
2- 5 days 
10-14 days 
16-24 days 
12-20 days 
1- 7 days 
1-14 days 
1-28 days 
7-14 days 

Until all scabs have fallen off. 

14 d’s after dis’pear’ce of membrane. 
Until scali’g and cough have ceas’d. 
14 days from commencement. 

10-14 days from commencement. 
Until all scaling has ceased. 

Until all scabs have fallen off. 

Until diarrhoea ceases. 

Six weeks from beginning to whoop. 

Diphtheria. 

Measles*. 

Mumps. 

Rotheln . 

Scarlet Fever. 

Small-pox. 

Typhoid Fever. 

Whooping Cough|. . 


♦In measles the patient is infectious three days before the eruption appears, 
tin whooping-cough th§ patient is infectious during the primary cough, which 
be three weeks befpre the whooping begins. 


207 










































ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 


WHAT TO DO. 

If an artery is cut , red blood spurts. Compress it above the 
•wound. If a vein is cut, dark blood flows. Compress it below 
and above. 

If choked , go upon all fours and cough. 

For slight burns , dip the part in cold water; if the skin is 
destroyed , cover with varnish or linseed oil. 

For apoplexy , raise the head and body; for fainting , lay the 
person flat. 

Send for a physician whc 7 i a serious accident of any kind 
occurs , but treat as directed until he arrives. 

Scalds and Burns —The following facts cannot be too 

firmly impressed on the mind of the reader, that in either of these accidents the 
first, best, and often the only remedies required, are sheets of wadding, fine wool, 
or carded cotton, and in the default of these,violet powder, flour^magnesia, or chalk. 
The object for which these several articles are employed is the same in each in¬ 
stance; namely, to exclude the air from the injured part; for if the air can be effec¬ 
tually shut out from the raw surface, and care is taken not to expose the tender part 
till the new cuticle is formed, the cure may be safely left to nature. The moment a 
person is called to a case of scald or burn, he should cover the part with a sheet, or 
a portion of a sheet, of wadding, taking care not to break any blister that may have 
formed, or stay to remove any burnt clothes that may adhere to the surface, but as 
quickly as possible envelop every part of the injury from all access of the air, laying 
one or two more pieces of wadding on the first, so as effectually to guard the burn 
or scald from the irritation of the atmosphere; and if the article used is wool or cot¬ 
ton, the same precaution, of adding more material where the surface is thinly cov¬ 
ered, must be adopted; a light bandage finally securing all in their places. Any of 
the popular remedies recommended below may be employed when neither wool, 
cotton, nor wadding are to be procured, it being always remembered that that ar¬ 
ticle which will best exclude the air from a burn or scald is the best, quickest, and 
least painful mode of treatment. And in this respect nothing has surpassed cotton 
loose or attached to paper as in wadding. 

If the Skin is Much Injured in burns, spread some linen 

E retty thickly with chalk ointment, and lay over the part, and give the patient some 
randy and water if much exhausted; then send for a medical man. If not much 
injured, and very painful, use the same ointment, or apply carded cotton dipped in 
lime water and linseed oil. If you please, you may lay cloths dipped in ether over 
the parts, or cold lotions. Treat scalds in same manner, or cover with scraped raw 
potato; but the chalk ointment is the best. In the absence of all these, cover the 
injured part with treacle, and dust over it plenty of flour. 

Body in Flames —Lay the person down on the floor of the 
room, and throw the table cloth, rug, or other large cloth over him, and roll him 
on the floor. 

Dirt in the Eye —Place your forefinger upon the cheek-bone, 

having the patient before you; then slightly bend the finger, this will draw down 
the lower lid of the eye, and you will probably be able to remove the dirt; but if 
this will not enable you to get at it, repeat this operation while you have a netting- 
needle or bodkin placed over the eyelid; this will turn it inside out, and enable you 
to remove the sand, or eyelash, etc., with the corner of a fine silk handkerchief. As 
soon as the substance is removed, bathe the eye with cold water, and exclude the 
light for a day. If the inflammation is severe, let the patient use a refrigerant lotion. 

Lime in the Eye —Syringe it well with warm vinegar and 
water in the proprofion of one ounce of vinegar to eight ounces of water; exclude 
light. 


208 



ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 


Iron or Steel Spicule in the Eye— These occur while 

turning iron or steel in a lathe, and are best remedied by doubling back the upper 
or lower eyelid, according to the situation of the substance, and with the flat edge of 
a silver probe, taking up the metallic particle, using a lotion made by dissolving six 
grains of sugar of lead and the same of white vitriol, in six ounces of water, and bath¬ 
ing the eye three times a day till the inflammation subsides. Another plan is—Drop 
a solution of sulphate of copper (from one to three grains of the salt to one ounce of 
water) into the eye, or keep the eye open in a wineglassful of the solution. Bathe 
with cold lotion, and exclude light to keep down inflammation. 

Dislocated Thumb— This is frequently produced by a fall. 

Make a clove hitch, by passing two loops of cord over the thumb, placing a piece of 
rag under the cord to prevent it cutting the thumb; then pull in the same line as the 
thumb. Afterwards apply a cold lotion. 

Cuts and Wounds— Clean cut wounds, whether deep or 
superficial, and likely to heal by the first intention, should always be washed or 
cleaned, and at once evenly and smoothly closed by bringing both 
edges close together, and securing them in that position by 
adhesive plaster. Cut thin strips of sticking plaster, and bring the 
parts together; or if large and deep, cut two broad pieces, so as to look like the teeth 
of a comb, and place one on each side of the wound, which must be cleaned pre¬ 
viously. These pieces must be arranged so that they shall interlace one another; 
then, by laying hold of the pieces on the right side with one hand, and those on the 
other side with the other hand, and pulling them from one another, the edges of 
the wound are brought together without any difficulty. 

Ordinary Cuts are dressed by thin strips, applied by pressing 
down the plaster on one side of the wound, and keeping it there and pulling in the 
opposite direction; then suddenly depressing the hand when the edges of the wound 
are brought together. 

Contusions are best healed by laying a piece of folded lint, 

well wetted with extract of lead, or boracic acid, on the part, and, if there is 
much pain, placing a hot bran poultice over the dressing, repeating both, if neces¬ 
sary, every two hours. When the injuries are very severe, lay a cloth over the part, 
and suspend a basin over it filled with cold lotion. Put a piece of cotton into the 
basin, so that it shall allow the lotion to drop on the cloth, and thus keep it always 
wet. 

Hemorrhage, when caused by an artery being divided or 
torn, may be known by the blood issuing out of the wound in leaps or jerks, and 
being of a bright scarlet color. If a vein is injured, the blood is darker and flows 
continuously. To arrest the latter, apply pressure by means of a compress and 
bandage. To arrest arterial bleeding, get a piece of wood (part of a broom handle 
will do), and tie a piece of tape to one end of it; then tie a piece of tape loosely over 
the arm, and pass the other end of the wood under it; twist the stick round and 
round until the tape compresses the arm sufficiently to arrest the bleeding, and then 
confine the other end by tying the string around the arm. A compress made by 
enfolding a penny piece in several folds of lint or linen should, however, be first 
placed under the tape and over the artery. If the bleeding is very obstinate, and it 
occurs in the arm, place a cork underneath the string, on the inside of the fleshy 
part, where the artery may be felt beating'by any one; if in the leg, place a cork in 
the direction of a line drawn from the inner part of the knee towards the outer part 
of the groin. It is an excellent thing to accustom yourself to find out the position of 
these arteries, or, indeed, any that are superficial, and to explain to every person in 
your house where they are, and how to stop bleeding. If a stick cannot begot take 
a handkerchief, make a cord bandage of it, and tie a knot in the middle; the knot 
acts as a compress, and should be placed over the artery, while the two ends are to 
be tied around the thumb. Observe always to place the ligature between the 
wound and the heart. Putting your finger into a bleeding wound, and making 
pressure until a surgeon arrives, will generally stop violent bleeding. 

Bleeding from the Nose, from whatever cause, may gen- . 

erally be stopped by putting a plug of lint into the nostrils; if this does not do, apply a 

, 209 


ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

cold lotion to the forehead; raise the head, and place over it both arms, so that it will 
rest on the hands; dip the lint plug, slightly moistened, into some powdered gum 
arabic, and plug the nostrils again; or dip the plug into equal parts of powdered 
gum arabic and alum,and plug the nose. Or the plug may be dipped in Friar’s balsam, 
or tincture of kino. Heat should be applied to the feet; and, in obstinate cases, the 
sudden shock of a cold key, or cold water poured down the spine, will often instantly 
stop the bleeding. If the bowels are confined take a purgative. Injections of alum 
solution from a small syringe into the nose will often stop hemorrhage. 

Violent Shocks will sometimes stun a person, and he will re¬ 
main unconscious. Untie strings, collars, etc.; loosen anything that is tight, and in¬ 
terferes with the breathing; raise the head; see if there is bleeding from any 
part; apply smelling-salts to the nose, and hot bottles to the feet. 

In Concussion, the surface of the body is cold and pale, and 

the pulse weak and small, the breathing slow and gentle , and the pupil of the eye 
generally contracted or small. You can get an answer by speaking loud, so as to 
arouse the patient. Give a little brandy and water, keep the place quiet, apply 
warmth, and do not raise the head too high. If you tickle the feet the patient 
feels it. 

In Compression of the Brain from any cause, such as apo¬ 
plexy, or a piece of fractured bone pressing on it, there is loss of sensation. _ If you 
tickle the feet of the injured person he does not feel it. You cannot arouse him so as 
to get an answer. The pulse is slow and labored; the breathing deep, labored, 
and snorting; the pupil enlarged. Raise the head, loosen strings or tight things, 
and send for a surgeon. If one cannot be got at once, apply mustard poultices to 
the feet and thighs, leeches to the temples, and hot water to the feet. 

Choking— When a person has a fish bone in the throat, insert 

the forefinger, press upon the root of the tongue, so as to induce vomiting; it this 
does not do, let him swallow a large piece of potato or soft bread; and if these fail, 
give a mustard emetic. 

Fainting, Hysterics, etc.— Loosen the garments, bathe the 

temples with water or eau-de-Cologne; open the window, admit plenty of fresh air, 
dash cold water on the face, apply hot bricks to the feet, and avoid bustle and exces¬ 
sive sympathy. 

Drowning— Attend to the following essential rules: —i. Lose 
no time. 2. Handle the body gently. 3. Carry the body face downwards, with 
the head gently raised, and never hold it up by the feet. 4. Send for medical as¬ 
sistance immediately, and in the meantime act as follows: 5. Strip the body; rub 
it dry, then wrap it in hot blankets, and place it in a warm bed in a warm room. 6. 
Cleanse away the froth and mucus from the nose and mouth. 7. Apply warm 
bricks, bottles, bags of sand, etc., to the armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles 
of the feet. 8. Rub the surface of the body with the hands inclosed in warm, dry 
worsted socks. 9. If possible, put the body into a warm bath. 10. To restore 
breathing, put the pipe of a common bellows into one nostril, carefully plosing the 
other, and the mouth; at the same time drawing downwards, and pushing gently 
backwards, the upper part of the windpipe, to allow a more free admission of air; 
blow the bellows gently, in order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be raised a little; 
then set the mouth and noscrils free, and press gently on the chest; repeat this until 
signs of life appear. The body should be covered the moment it is placed on the 
table, except the face, and all the rubbing carried on under the sheet or blanket. 
When they can be obtained, a number of tiles or bricks should be made tolerably hot 
in the fire, laid in a row on the table, covered with a blanket, and the body placed 
in such a manner on them that their heat may enter the spine. When the patient 
revives, apply smelling-salts to the nose, give warm wine or brandy and water. 
Cautions. —1. Never rub the body with salt or spirits. 2. Never roll the body on 
casks. 3. Continue the remedies for twelve hours without ceasing. 

Hanging— Loosen the cord, or whatever it may be by which 
the person has been suspended. Open the temporal artery or jugular vein, or bleed 
from the arm; employ electricity, if at hand, and proceed as for drowning, taking the 
additional precaution to apply eight or ten leeches to the temples. 

210 


POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
Apparent Death from Drunkenness— Raise the head; 

loosen the clothes, maintain warmth of surface, and give a mustard emetic as soon 
as the person can swallow. 

Apoplexy and Fits Generally— Raise the head; loosen all 

tight clothes, strings, etc.; apply cold lotions to the head, which should be shaved; 
apply leeches to the temples, bleed, and send for a surgeon. 

Suffocation from Noxious Gases, etc.— Remove to the 
fresh air; dash cold vinegar and water in the face, neck, and breast; keep up the 
warmth of the body; if necessary, apply mustard poultices to the soles of the feet and 
to the spine, and try artificial respirations as in drowning, with electricity. 

Lightning and Sunstroke— Treat the same as apoplexy. 


POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 

Always send immediately for a medical man. Save all fluids 
vomited, and articles of food, cups, glasses, etc., used by the 
parent before taken ill, and lock them up. 

As a rule give emetics after poisons that cause sleepiness and 
raving;—chalk, milk, eggs, butter, and warm water, or oil, after 
poisons that cause vomiting and pain in the stomach and bowels, 
with purging; and when there is no inflammation about the 
throat, tickle it with a feather to excite vomiting. 

Vomiting may be caused by giving warm water, 
with a teaspoonful of mustard to the tumblerful, well 
stirred up. Sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) may be 
used in place of the mustard, or powdered alum. 
Powder of ipecacuanha, a teaspoonful rubbed up with 
molasses, may be employed for children. Tartar 
emetic should never he given , as it is excessively 
depressing, and uncontrolable in its effects. The stomach pump 
can only be used by skillful hands, and even then with caution. 

Opium and other Narcotics —After vomiting has occurred, cold water should be 
dashed over the face and head. The patient must be kept awake, walked about be¬ 
tween two strong persons, made to grasp the handles of a galvanic battery, dosed 
with strong coffee, and vigorously slapped. Belladonna is an antidote for opium 
and for morphia, etc., its active principles; and, on the other hand, the latter 
counteract the effects of belladonna. But a knowledge of medicine is necessary for 
dealingwith these articles. 

Strychnia —After emetics have been freely and successfully given, the patient 
should be allowed to breathe the vapor of sulphuric ether, poured on a handker¬ 
chief and held to the face, in such quantities as to keep down the tendency to con¬ 
vulsions. Bromide of potassium, twenty grains at a dose, dissolved in syrup, may be 
given every hour. . _ 

Alcoholic Poisoning should be combated by emetics, of which the sulphate of zinc, 
given as above directed, is the best. After that, strong coffee internally, and stim¬ 
ulation by heat externally, should be used. 

Acids are sometimes swallowed by mistake. Alkalies, lime water, magnesia, or 
common chalk mixed with water, may be freely given, and afterward mucilaginous 
drinks, such as thick gum water or flaxseed tea. , 

Alkalies are less frequently taken in injurious strength or quantity, but sometimes 
children swallow lye by mistake. Common vinegar may be given freely, and J" en 
castor or sweet oil in full doses—a tablespoonful at a time, repeated every half hour 

or two. _ . 

Nitrate of silver when swallowed is neutralized by common table salt freely given 

in solution in water. 



211 



DOSES OF MEDICINE , 


The salts of -mercury or arsenic (often kept as bedbug poison), which are power¬ 
ful irritants, are apt to be very quickly fatal. Milk or the whites of eggs may be 
freely given, and afterward a very thin paste of flour and water. In these cases an 
emetic is to be given after the poison is neutralized. 

Phosphorus paste, kept for roach poison or in parlor matches, is sometimes eaten 
by children, and has been willfully taken for the purpose of suicide. It is a power¬ 
ful irritant. The first thing to be done is to give freely of magnesia and water; then 
to give mucilaginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, gum water or sassafras pith and water; 
and lastly to administer finely-powdered bone-charcoal, either in pill or in mixture 
with water. 

In no case of poisoning should there be any avoidable delay in obtaining the advice 
of a physician, and, meanwhile, the friends or bystanders should endeavor to find 
out exactly what has been taken, so that the treatment adopted may be as prompt 
and effective as possible. 

DOSES OF MEDICINE. 


NAME OF DRUG. 


DOSE. 


Aloes.. 

Anise Oil. 

Aqua Ammonia(dilute) 

Balsam Copaiba. 

Balsam of Fir. 

Bismuth. 

Bromide of Potassium. 

Buchu Leaves. 

Calomel (as alterative) 

Castor Oil. 

Citrate of Iron. 

Citrate Iron & Quinine 

Cream of Tartar. 

Dover’s Powder. 

Elecampane. 

Epsom Salts. 

Gallic Acid. 

Iodide of Potassium... 

Kino. 

Mandrake.. 

Mercury with Chalk.. 

Morphine. 

Muriate of Ammonia.. 

Opium. 

Paregoric. 

Peppermint Essence.. 

Pepsin. 

Quinine... 

Rochelle Salts. 

Rhubarb. 

Saltpetre. 

Samonin. 

Syrup of Squills .. 

“ Iodide of Iron 
" Senna. 


3 to 15 grains. 

5 to 15 drops. 

10 to 30 drops, 
xo to 40 drops. 

3 to 10 drops. 

5 1040 grains. 

5 to 40 grains. 

20 to 40 grains. 
1-12 to 1 grain. 

1 to 8 teasp’fuls. 

2 to 5 grains. 

3 to 8 grains. 

y 2 to 3 teasp’fuls. 
5 to 10 grains. 

20 to 60 grains. 

to 1 ounce. 

5 to 10 grains. 

2 to 10 grains. 

10 to 30 grains. 

5 to bo grains. 

2 to 8 grains. 

Y toy grain. 

5 to 20 grains. 
l / 2 to 2 grains. 

1 teaspoonful. 

5 to 30 drops. 

1 to 5 grains. 

1 to 10 grains. 

Y to 1 ounce. 

5 to 30 grains. 

5 to 20 grains. 

2 to s grains. 

Y to 1 teasp'ful. 
15 to 30 drops. 

1 to 6 teasp’fnls. 


NAME OF DRUG. 


Syrup of Sarsaparilla.. 
“ Seneka....... 

“ Rhubarb. 

Tannic Acid........... 

Tinct. of Aconite Root 


44 

Aloes. 

44 

Asafetida ... 

4* 

Belladona.... 

44 

Bloodroot.... 

44 

Columbo .... 

44 

Camphor.... 

44 

Cayenne. 

44 

Castor. 

44 

Catechu. 

44 

Cinch. Comp. 

44 

Colchicum... 

44 

Digitalis. 

44 

Ginger. 

4i 

Gentian Com 

44 

Guaiac. 

44 

Kino. 

44 

Lobelia. 

44 

Muriate Iron. 

44 

Myrrh. 

44 

Nux Vomica. 

44 

Opium 


(Laudanum) 

44 

Rhubarb. 

44 

“ & Senna 

44 

Tolu. 

44 

Valerian. 


Turpentine. 

Wine Ipecac (Diaph.). 
“ “ (Emetic). 

“ Colchicum Root 


DOSE. 


x to 4 teasp’fuls. 

1 to 2 teasp’fuls. 

1 to 2 teasp’fuls. 

1 to 5 grains. 

1 to 5 drops. 

1 to 8 teasp’fuls. 
14 to 1 teasp’ful. 
10 to 30 drops. 

Y to 14 teasp’ful. 
1 to 2 teasp’fuls. 

5 to 60 drops. 

10 to 60 drops. 

14 to 1 teasp’ful. 
y 2 to 2 teasp’fuls. 
y 2 to 4 teasp’fuls. 

15 to 60 drops. 

5 to 20 drops. 

Y to 1 teasp’ful 

Y to 2 teasp’fuls. 
14 to i teasp’ful. 
y 2 to 2 teasp’fuls 

Y to 1 teasp’ful. 
10 to 30 drops. 

14 to 1 teasp’ful. 
5 to 10 drops. 

xo to 25 drops. 

1 to 4 teasp’fuls. 

1 to 4 teasp’fuls. 
14 to 1 teasp’ful. 
y 2 to 2 teasp’fuls. 
10 to 40 drops. 

10 to 30 drops. 

2 to 8 teasp’fuls, 
10 to 30 drops. 


Table of Proportionate Poses. 

Age, years . 80 65 50 25-40 20 16 12 

Doses . fill lit 

Age , months .12 

Doses.i 


8 5 
t 3 

5 T 

6 2 
i T5 


A 


212 


t—iiH* - to 





























































Largest Safe Doses of Poisonous Drugs* 

Every person should know the largest doses, which is safe to 
take, of active medicines. The following table shows the larg¬ 
est doses admissible, in grammes, and also the equivalent in 
grains for solids, and in minims for liquids. The doses are ex¬ 
pressed in fractions, thus: 1-13, 1 - 64 , meaning one-thirteenth, 
one-sixty-fourth. In non-professional hands it is the safest plan 
to strictly observe the rule of never giving the maximum dose of 
any medicine: 


Medicines. Grammes. Grains. 

Medicines. Grammes. Grains. 

Arsenious Acid. 

.. .005 

1-13 

Ext. Opium. 

.1 

\ X A 

Acid, Carbolic. 

.. .05 

% 

“ Stramon, Seed. 

.05 

% 

“ Hydrocyanic. 

.. .06 

1 

Fowler’s Solution. 

.4 

flmin. 

Aconita. 

.. .0041 

-16 

Lead, Sugar of..... 

.06 

9-10 

Aconite Root. 

.. .15 

2^4 

Mercury, Corrosive Chlor.. 

.03 

9-20 

Arsenic, Iodide. 

.. .025 

% 

“ Red Iodide. 

.03 

9-20 

Atropia. 


1-64 

Morphia and its Salts. 

.03 

9-20 

Atropia Sulph.. 


1-64 

Nitrate Silver. 

.03 

9-20 

Barium, Chlor. 

.. .12 

lVs 

Oil, Croton. 

.06 

9-10 

Belladonna, Herb. 

.. .2 

3 

Opium. 

.15 

2*4 

“ Root. 

.. .1 

ia 

Phosphorus. 

.015 

2-9 

Codia. 

.. .05 

k 

Potassa, Arsenite. 

.005 

1-13 

Conia. 

.. .001 

1-64 

“ Cyanide. 

.03 

9-20 

Digitalis. 

.. .3 


Santonine. 

.1 

l'A 

Ext. Aconite Leaves. 

.. .1 

ia 

Soda, Arsenite. 

.005 

1-13 

“ “ Root. 

.. .025 

% 

Strychnia and Salts. 

.01 

1-6 

“ Belladonna. 

.. .1 

1^2 

Tartar Emetic. 

.2 

3 

“ Cannabis Indica.... 

.. .1 

l l A 

Veratria..... 

.005 

1-13 

“ Con in m. 

.. .18 


Veratrum Viride.. 

.3 

i'A 

** Digitalis. 

.. 2 

3 

Zinc, Chloride... 

.015 

2-9 

•• Nux Vomica, Ale... 

.. .05 

% 

“ Valeriante. 

.06 

9-10 


Relative Value of Food (Beef pari 

Oysters, 22; milk, 24: lobsters, 50; cream, 56; codfish, 68; eggs, 72; turbot, 84; 
mutton, 87; venison, 89; veal, 92; fowl, 94; herring, 100; beef, 100; duck, 104; sal¬ 
mon, 108; pork, 116; butter, 124; cheese, 155. 


Percentage of Carbon in Food. 

Cabbage, 3; beer, 4; carrots, 5; milk, 7; parsnips, 8; fish, 9; potatoes, 12; eggs, 16; 
beef, 27; bread, 27; cheese, 36; peas, 36; rice, 38; corn, 38; biscuit, 42; oatmeal, 42; 
sugar, 42; flour, 46; bacon, 54; cocoa, 69; butter, 79. 


Foot-tons of Energy Per Ounce of Food. 

Cabbage, 16; carrots, 20; milk, 24; ale, 30; potatoes, 38; porter, 42; beef, 55; egg, 
57; ham, 65; bread, 83; egg (yolk), 127; sugar, 130; rice, 145; flour, 148; arrowroot, 
151; oatmeal, 152; cheese, 168; butter, 281. 

Loss of Meat in Cooking. 


100 lbs. raw beef 
100 “ 

400 “ raw mutton 


= 67 lbs. roast 
=3 74 “ boiled 
= 75 “ roast 


100 lbs. raw fowl 
100 “ “ 

100 “ raw fish 


= 80 roast 
= 87 boiled 
= 94 boiled 


The Percentage off Starch. 

In common grains is as follows, according to Prof. Yeomans: Rice flour, 84 to 85; 
Indian meal, 77 to80; oatmeal, 70 to 80; wheat flour, 39 to 77; barley flour, 67 to 70; 
rye flour, 50 to 61; buckwheat, 52; peas and beans, 42 to 43; potatoes (75 per cent, 
water), 13 to 15. „ ^ 

The Degrees of Sugar. 

In various fruits are: Peach, 1.6; raspberry, 4.0; strawberry, 5.7; currant, 6.1; 
gooseberry, 7.2; apple, 7.9; mulberry, 9.2; pear, 9.4; cherry, 10.8; grape, i4<9' 

213 


I 















































Digestion of Various Foods. 

Easy of Digestion—Arrowroot, asparagus, cauliflower, baked 

apples, oranges, grapes, strawberries, peaches. 

Moderately Digestible—Apples, raspberries, bread, puddings, 

rhubarb, chocolate, coffee, porter. 

Hard to Digest—Nuts, pears, plums, cherries, cucumbers, 

Onions, carrots, parsnips. 

TIME REQUIRED FOR DIGESTION. 




Hrs. 

Min. 



Hrs. 

Min. 

Apples, sweet . 


. 1 

30 

Mutton, roast . 


. 3 

15 

“ sour . 


. 2 

00 

“ broiled . 


. 3 

00 

Beans, pod, boiled. ... 


.2 

30 

" boiled. 


. 3 

00 

Beef, fresh, rare, roasted... . 

. 3 

00 

Oysters, raw . 


.2 

55 

“ “ dried . 


. 3 

30 

“ roast . 


. 3 

15 

“ “ fried . 


. 4 

00 

“ stewed . 


. 3 

30 

Beets, boiled . 


. 3 

45 

Pork, fat and lean, roast. .. 

. 5 

15 

Bread, wheat, fresh... 


. 3 

30 

“ “ “ boiled... 

. 3 

15 

“ corn . 


. 3 

15 

“ “ “ raw 


. 3 

00 

Butter (melted) . 


. 3 

30 

Potatoes, boiled . 


. ...3 

30 

Cabbage, with vinegar, raw. 

. 2 

00 

“ baked . 


. 2 

30 

“ boiled . 


. 4 

30 

Rice boiled . 


. 1 

00 

Cheese (old, strong).. 


. 3 

30 

Sago . 


... .1 

45 

Codfish . 


. 2 

00 

Salmon, salted, boiled. 


. 4 

00 

Custard, baked . 


. 2 

45 

Soup, beef, vegetable. 


_ 4 

00 

Ducks, domestic, roasted... 

. 4 

00 

“ chicken boiled. 


. 3 

00 

“ wild, “ 


. 4 

30 

“ oyster “ 


. 3 

30 

Eggs, fresh, hard, boiled _ 

. 3 

30 

Tapioca, boiled . 


. 2 

00 

** “ soft “ 


. 3 

00 

Tripe, soused, boiled.. 


. 1 

00 

“ “ fried . 


. 3 

30 

Trout, fresh, boiled or fried 

. 1 

30 

Goose, roast . 


. 2 

00 

Turkey, domestic, roast. ... 

. 2 

00 

Lamb, fresh, boiled. .. 


. 2 

30 

“ wild, roast.... 


. 2 

18 

Liver, beef, boiled. ... 


. 2 

00 

Turnips, boiled . 


. 3 

30 

Milk, boiled . 


..2 

00 

Veal, fresh, broiled.... 


. 4 

00 

“ raw. . ' . 


2 

15 

“ fresh, fried . 


. 4 

30 

Parsnips, boiled . 


2 

30 

Venison steak, broiled 


. 1 

35 

Fat, Water and Muscle Properties of Food. 


100 parts. Water. Muscle. 

Fat. 

100 parts. Water. Muscle. 

Fat. 

Cucumbers. 

97.0 

1.5 

1.0 

Mutton . 

44.0 

12.5 

40.0 

Turnips . 

94.4 

1.1 

4.0 

Pork . 

38.5 

10.00 

50.0 

Cabbage ... 

90 0 

4.0 

5.0 

Beans . 

14.8 

24.0 

57.7 

Milk, cows’ . 

.86.0 

5.0 

8.0 

Buckwheat . 

. 14.2 

8.6 

75.4 

Apples . 

.84 0 

5.0 

10.0 

Barley . 

14.0 

15-0 

68.8 

Eggs, yolk of . 

. 79.0 

15.0 

27.0 

Corn . 

14.0 

12.0 

73.0 

Potatoes . 

.75 2 

1.4 

22.5 

Peas. 

. 14.0 

23.4 

60.0 

Veal. 

68 5 

10.1 

1.65 

Wheat . 

. 14.0 

14.6 

69.4 

Eggs, white of . 

Lamb . 

58 0 

17.0 

.0 

Oats . 

. 13.6 

17.0 

86.4 

50.5 

11.0 

35.0 

Rice . 

13 5 

6.5 

65.0 

79.5 

19.0 

Beef . 

. 50.0 

15.0 

30.0 

Cheese . 


Chicken . 


18.0 

32.0 

Butter . 

100.0 


Percentage of Nutrition in Various Articles of Food. 

Raw cucumbers, 2; raw mellons, 3; boiled turnips, 4^; milk, 7; cabbage, 7^; 
currants, 10; whipped eggs, 13; beets, 14; apples, 16; peaches, 20; boiled codfish, 
21; broiled venison, 22; potatoes, 22^; fried veal, 24; roast pork, 24; roast poul¬ 
try, 26; raw beef, 26; raw grapes, 27; raw plums, 29; broiled mutton, 30; oatmeal 
porridge, 75; rye bread, 79; boiled beans, 87; boiled rice, 88; barley bread, 88; 
wheat bread, 90; baked corn bread, 91; boiled barley, 92; butter, 93; boiled peas, 
93; raw oils, 94. % 


214 
















































































USEFUL RECIPES, TRADE SECRETS, ETC. 


Toothache Cure. Compound tinct. benzoin is said to be one 

of the most certain and speedy cures for toothache; pour a few drops on cotton, and 
press at once into the diseased cavity, when the pain will almost instantly cease. 

Toothache Tincture. Mix tannin, i scruple; mastic, 3 grains; 

ether, 2 drams. Apply on cotton wool, to the tooth, previously dried. 

Charcoal Tooth Paste. Chlorate of potash, y 2 dram; mint 

water, 1 ounce. Dissolve and add powdered charcoal, 2 ounces; honey, 1 ounce. 

Excellent Mouth Wash. Powdered white Castile soap, 7} 

drams; alcohol, 3 ounces; honey, 1 ounce; essence or extract jasmine, 2 drams. 
Dissolve the soap in alcohol and add honey and extract. 

Removing Tartar from the Teeth. This preparation is used by 

dentists. Pure muriatic acid, one ounce; water, one ounce; honey, two ounces; mix 
thoroughly. Take a toothbrush, and wet it freely with this preparation, and briskly 
rub the black teeth, and in a moment’s time they will be perfectly white; then im¬ 
mediately wash out the mouth well with water, that the acid may not act on the 
enamel of the teeth. This should be done only occasionally. 

Bad Breath. Bad breath from catarrh, foul stomach, or bad 
teeth, may be temporarily relieved by diluting a little bromo chloralum with eight 
or ten parts of water, and using it as a gargle, and swallowing a few drops before 
going out. A pint of bromo chloralum costs fifty cents, but a small vial will last a 
long time. 

Good Tooth Powder. Procure, at a druggist’s, half an ounce of 

powdered orris root, half an ounce of prepared chalk finely pulverized, and two or 
three small lumps of Dutch pink. Let them all be mixed in a mortar, and pounded 
together. The Dutch pink is to impart a pale reddish color. Keep it in a close box. 

Another Tooth Powder. Mix together, in a mortar, half an 
ounce of red Peruvian bark, finely powdered; a quarter of an ounce of powdered 
myrrh; and a quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk. 

A Safe Depilatory. Take a strong solution of sulphuret of 
barium, and add enough finely powdered starch to make a paste. Apply to the 
roots of the hair and allow it to remain on a few minutes, then scrape off with the 
back edge of a knife blade, and rub with sweet oil. 

Quick Depilatory for Removing Hair. Best slacked lime, 6 

ounces; orpiment, fine powder, 1 ounce. Mix with a covered sieve and preserve in 
a dry place in closely stoppered bottles. In using mix the powder with enough 
water to form a paste, and apply to the hair to be removed. In about five minutes, 
or as soon as its caustic action is felt on the skin, remove, as in shaving, with an 
ivory or bone paper knife, wash with cold water freely, and apply cold cream. 

Tricopherous for the Hair. Castor oil, alcohol, each 1 pint; 
tinct. cantharides, one ounce; oil bergamot, y 2 ounce; alkanet coloring, to color as 
wished. Mix and let it stand forty-eight hours, with occasional shaking, and then 
filter. 

Liquid Shampoo. Take bay rum, 2^ pints; water, y 2 pint; 

glycerine, 1 ounce; tinct. cantharides, 2 drams; carbonate of ammonia, 2 drams 
borax, % ounce; or take of New England rum, x l / 2 pints; bay rum, 1 pint; water 
pint; glycerine, 1 ounce; tinct. cantharides, 2 drams; ammon. carbonate, 2 
drams; borax, y 2 ounce; the salts to be dissolved in water and the other ingredi¬ 
ents to be added gradually. 

Cleaning Hair Brushes. Put a teaspoonful or dessertspoonful 

Of aqua ammonia into a basin half full of water, comb the loose hairs out of the 
brush, then agitate the water briskly with the brush, and rinse it well with clear 
water. 

Hair Invigorator. Bay rum, two pints; alcohol, one pint; cas¬ 
tor oil, one ounce; carb. ammonia, half an ounce; tincture of cantharides, one 
ounce. Mix them well. This compound will promote the growth of the hair and 
prevent it from falling out. 


215 



USEFUL RECIPES , ETC, 


For Dandruff. Take glycerine, four ounces; tincture of can- 

tharides, five ounces; bay rum, four ounces; water, two ounces. Mix, and apply once 
a day, and rub well down the scalp. 

Mustache Grower. Simple cerate, i ounce; oil bergamot, io 

minims; saturated tinct. of cantharides, 15 minims. Rub them together thoroughly, 
or melt the cerate and stir in the tincture while hot, and the oil as soon as it is 
nearly cold, then run into molds or rolls. To be applied as a pomade, rubbing in 
at the roots of the hair. Care must be used not to inflame the skin by too frequent 
application. 

Razor-strop Paste. Wet the strop with a little sweet oil, and 

apply a little flour of emery evenly over the surface. 

Shaving Compound. Half a pound of plain white soap, dis¬ 
solved in a small quantity of alcohol, as little as can be used; add a tablespoonful 
of pulverized borax. Shave the soap and put it in a small tin basin or cup; place it 
on the fire in a dish of boiling water; when melted, add the alcohol, and remove 
from the fire; stir in oil of bergamot sufficient to perfume it. 

Cure for Prickly Heat. Mix a large portion of wheat bran 

with either cold or lukewarm water, and use it as a bath twice or thrice a day. 
Children who are covered with prickly heat in warm weather will be thus effectu¬ 
ally relieved from that tormenting eruption. As soon as it begins to appear on the 
neck, face, or arms, commence using the bran water on these parts repeatedly 
through the day, and it may probably spread no farther. If it does, the bran water 
bath will certainly cure it, if persisted in. 

To Remove Corns from Between the Toes. These corns are gen¬ 
erally more painful than any others, and are frequently situated as to be almost in¬ 
accessible to the usual remedies. Wetting them several times a day with hartshorn 
will in most cases cure them. Try it. 

Superior Cologne Water. Oil of lavender, two drams; oil of 

rosemary, one dram and a half; orange, lemon and bergamot, one dram each 
of the oil; also two drams of the essence of musk, attar of rose ten drops, and a 
pint of proof spirit. Shake all together thoroughly three times a day for a week. 

Inexhaustible Smelling Salts. Sal tartar, three drams; mur¬ 
iate ammonia, granulated, 6 drams; oil neroli, 5 minims; oil lavender flowers, 5 mm- 
ims; oil rose, 3 minims; spirits ammonia, 15 minims. Put into the pungent a small 
piece of sponge filling about one-fourth the space, and pour on it a due proportion 
of the oils, then put in the mixed salts until the bottle is three-fourths full, and pour 
on the spirits of ammonia in proper proportion and close the bottle. 

Volatile Salts for Pungents. Liquor ammon., fort, 1 pint, oil 
lavender flowers, 1 dram, oil rosemary, fine, x dram, oil bergamot, y 2 dram, 
oil peppermint, 10 minims. Mix thoroughly and fill pungents or keep in well 
stoppered bottle. Another formula is, sesqui-carbonate of ammonia, small pieces, 10 
ounces, concentrated liq. ammonia, 5 ounces. Put the sesqui-carb. in a wide mouth 
jar with air-tight stopper, perfume the liquor ammonia to suit and pour over the car¬ 
bonate, close tightly the lid and place in a cool place, stir with a stiff spatula every 
other day for a week, and then keep it closed for two weeks, or until it becomes 
hard, when it is ready for use. 

Paste for Papering Boxes. Boil water and stir in batter of 

wheat or rye flour. Let it boil one minute, take off and strain through a colander. 
Add, while boiling, a little glue or powdered alum. Do plenty of stirring while the 
paste is cooking, and make of consistency that will spread nicely. 

Aromatic Spirit of Vinegar. Acetic acid, No. 8, pure, 8 

ounces; camphor, l / 2 ounce. Dissolve and add oil lemon, oil lavender flowers, each 
two drams; oil cassia, oil cloves, % dram each. Thoroughly mix and keep in 
well stoppered bottle. 

Rose-Water. Preferable to the distilled for a perfume, or for 

culinary purposes: Attar of rose, twelve drops; rub it up with half an ounce of 
white sugar and two drams carbonate magnesia, then add gradually one quart of 
water and two ounces of proof spirit, and filter through paper, 

216 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

Bay Rum. French proof spirit, one gallon; extract bay, six 

ounces. Mix and color with caramel; needs no filtering. J 

Fine Lavender Water. Mix together, in a clean bottle, a pint 
of inodorous spirit of wine, an ounce of oil of lavender, a teaspoonful of oil of berga¬ 
mot, and a tablespoonful of oil of ambergris. 

The Virtues of Turpentine. After a housekeeper fully realizes 
the worth of turpentine in the household, she is never willing to be without a sup¬ 
ply of it. It gives quick relief to burns, it is an excellent application for corns, it is 
good for rheumatism and sore throats, and it is the quickest remedy for convulsions 
or fits. Then it is a sure preventive against moths by just dropping a trifle in the 
bottom of drawers, chests and cupboards, it will render the garments secure from 
injury during the summer. It will keep ants and bugs from closets and store-rooms 
by putting a few drops in the corners and upon the shelves it is sure destruction to 
bedbugs, and will effectually drive them away from their haunts if thoroughly ap¬ 
plied to all the joints of the bedstead in the springcleaning time, and injures neither 
furniture nor clothing. A spoonful of it added to a paii of warm water is excellent 
for cleaning paint. A little in suds washing days lightens laundry labor. 

A Perpetual Paste is a paste that may be made by dissolving 

an ounce of alum in a quart of warm water. When cold, add as much flour as will 
make it the consistency of cream, then stir into it half a teaspoonful of powdered re¬ 
sin, and two or three cloves. Boil it to a consistency of mush, stirring all the time. It 
will keep for twelve months, and when dry may be softened with warm water. 

Paste for Scrap Books. Take half a teaspoonful of starch, 

same of flour, pour on a little boiling water, let it stand a minute, add more water, 
stir and cook it until it is thick enough to starch a shirt bosom. It spreads smooth, 
sticks well and will not mold or discolor paper. Starch alone will make a very good 
paste. 

A Strong Paste. A paste that will neither decay nor become 
moldy. Mix good clean flour with cold water into a thick paste well blended to¬ 
gether, then add boiling water, stirring well up until it is of a consistency that can 
be easily and smoothly spread with a brush; add to this a spoonful or two of brown 
sugar, a little corrosive sublimate and about half a dozen drops of oil of lavender, 
and you will have a paste that will hold with wonderful tenacity. 

A Brilliant Paste. A brilliant and adhesive paste, adapted to 

fancy articles, may be made by dissolving caseine precipitated from milk by acetic 
acid and washed with pure water in a saturated solution of borax. 

A Sugar Paste. In order to prevent the gum from cracking, to 
ten parts by weight of gum arabicand three parts of sugar, add water until the de¬ 
sired consistency is obtained. If a very Strong paste is required, add a quantity of 
flour equal in weight to the gum, without boiling the mixture. The paste improves 
in strength when it begins to ferment. 

Tin Box Cement. To fix labels to tin boxes either of the follow¬ 
ing will answer: i. Soften good glue in water, then boil it in strong vinegar, and 
thicken the liquid while boiling with fine wheat flour, so that a paste results. 2. 
Starch paste, with which a little Venice turpentine has been incorporated while 
warm. 

Paper and Leather Paste. Cover four parts, by weight, of 

glue, with fifteen parts of cold water, and allow it to soak for several hours, then 
warm moderately till the solution is perfectly clear, and dilute with sixty parts of 
boiling water, intimately stirred in. Next prepare a solution of thirty parts of starch 
in two hundred parts of cold water, so as to form a thin homogeneous liquid, free 
from lumps, and pour the boiling glue solution into it with thorough stirring, and a 
the same time keep the mass boiling. 

Commercial Mucilage. The best quality of mucilage in the 

market is made by dissolving clear glue in equal volumes of water and strong vine¬ 
gar, and adding one-fourth of an equal volume of alcohol, and a small quantity of a 
solution of alum in water. Some of the cheaper preparations offered for sale are 
merely boiled starch or flour, mixed with nitric acid to prevent their gelatinizing. 

217 


USEFUL RECIPES, ETC. 

Acid-Proof Paste. A paste formed by mixing powdered glass 
with a concentrated solution of silicate of soda makes an excellent acid-proof 
cement. 

Paste to Fasten Cloth to Wood. Take a plump pound of wheat 

flour, one tablespoonful of powdered resin, one tablespoonful of finely powdered 
alum, and rub the mixture in a suitable vessel, with water, to a uniform, smooth 
paste; transfer this to a small kettle over a fire, and stir until the paste is perfectly 
homogeneous without lumps. As soon as the mass has become so stiff that the 
stirrer remains upright in it, transfer it to another vessel and cover it up so that no 
skin may form on its surface. 

This paste is applied in a very thin layer to the surface of the table; the cloth, or 
leather, is then laid and pressed upon it, and smoothed with a roller. The ends are 
cut off after drying. If leather is to be fastened on, this must first be moistened 
with water. The paste is then applied, and the leather rubbed smooth with a 
cloth. 

Paste for Printing Office. Take two gallons of cold water 

and one quart wheat flour, rub out all the lumps, then add one-fourth pound of 
finely pulverized alum and boil the mixture for ten minutes, or until a thick con¬ 
sistency is reached. Now add one quart of hot water and boil again, until the paste 
becomes a pale brown color, and thick. The paste should be well stirred during 
both processes of cooking. Paste thus made will keep sweet for two weeks and 
prove very adhesive. 

To Take Smoke Stains from Walls. An easy and sure way to 

remove smoke stains from common plain ceilings is to mix wood ashes with the 
whitewash just before applying. A pint of ashes to a small pail of whitewash is suf¬ 
ficient, but a little more or less will do no harm. 

To Remove Stains from Broadcloth. Take an ounce of pipe 

clay, which has been ground fine, mix it with twelve drops of alcohol and the same 
quantity of spirits of turpentine. Whenever you wish to remove any stains from 
cloth, moisten a little of this mixture with alcohol and rub it on the spots. Let it re* 
main till dry, then rub it off with a woolen cloth, and the spots will disappear. 

To Remove Red Stains of Fruit from Linen. Moisten the 

cloth and hold it over a piece of burning sulphur, then wash thoroughly, or else the 
spots may reappear. 

To Remove Oil Stains. Take three ounces of spirits of turpen¬ 
tine and one ounce of essence of lemon, mix well, and apply it as you would any 
other scouring drops. It will take out all the grease. 

Iron Stains may be removed by the salt of lemons. Many 

stains may be removed by dipping the linen in sour buttermilk, and then drying It 
in a hot sun; wash it in cold water, repeat this three or four times. 

To Remove Oil Stains from Wood. Mix together fuller’s earth 

and soap lees, and rub it into the boards. Let it dry and then scour it offwith some 
strong soft soap and sand, or use lees to scour it with. It should be put on hot, 
which may easily be done by heating the lees. 

To Remove Tea Stains. Mix thoroughly soft soap and salt—say 

a tablespoonful of salt to a teacupful of soap, rub on the spots, and spread the cloth 
on the grass where the sun will shine on it. Let it lie two or three days, then wash. 
If the spots are wet occasionally while lying on the grass, it will hasten the bleach¬ 
ing 

To Remove Stains from Muslin. If you have stained your 

muslin or gingham dress, or your white pants with berries, before wetting with any¬ 
thing else, pour boiling water through the stains and they will disappear. Before 
fruit juice dries it can often be removed by cold water, using a sponge and towel if 
Recessary. 

To Remove Acid Stains. Stains caused by acids may be re¬ 
moved by tying some pearlash up in the stained part; scrape some soap in cold, soft 
water, and boil the linen until the stain is gone. 

218 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

To Disinfect Sinks and Drains. Copperas dissolved in water, 

one-fourth of a pound to a gallon, and poured into a sink and water drain occasion¬ 
ally, will keep such places sweet and wholesome. A little chloride of lime, say half 
a pound to a gallon of water, will have the same effect, and either of these costs but 

a trifle. 

A preparation may be made at home which will answer about as well as the chlo¬ 
ride of lime. Dissolve a bushel of salt in a barrel of water, and with the salt water 
slack a barrel of lime, which should be made wet enough to form a thin paste or 
wash. 

To Disinfect a Cellar. A damp, musty cellar may be sweetened 
by sprinkling upon the floor pulverized copperas, chloride of lime, or even common 
lime. The most effective means I have ever used to disinfect decaying vegetable 
matter is chloride of lime in solution. One pound may be dissolved in two gallons of 
water. Plaster of Paris has also been found an excellent absorbent of noxious odors. 
If used one part with three parts of charcoal, it will be found still better. 

How to Thaw Out a Water Pipe. Water pipes usually freeze up 

when exposed, for inside the walls, where they cannot be reached, they are or 
should be packed to prevent freezing. To thaw out a frozen pipe, bundle a news¬ 
paper into a torch, light it, and pass it along the pipe slowly. The ice will yield to 
this much quicker than to hot water or wrappings of hot cloths, as is the common 
practice. 

To Prevent Mold. A small quantity of carbolic acid added to 
paste, mucilage, and ink, will prevent mold. An ounce of the acid to a gallon of 
whitewash will keep cellars and dairies from the disagreeable odor which often 
taints milk and meat kept in such places. 

Economical FireKindler. One may be made by dipping corn 

cobs in a mixture of melted resin and tar, and drying. 

Thawing Frozen Gas Pipe. Mr. F. H. Shelton says: “I took 

off from over the pipe some four or five inches, just a crust of earth, and then put a 
couple of bushels of lime in the space, poured water over it, and slacked it, and 
then put canvas over that, and rocks on the canvas, so as to keep the wind from get¬ 
ting underneath. Next morning, on returning there, I found that the frost had been 
drawn out from the ground for nearly three feet. You can appreciate what an ad¬ 
vantage that was, for picking through frozen ground, with the thermometer below 
zero, is no joke. Since then we have tried it several times. It is an excellent plan 
if you have time enough to let the lime work. In the daytime you cannot afford to 
waste the time, but if you have a spare night in which to work, it is worth while to 
try it.” 

How to Test a Thermometer. The common thermometer in a 
^panned iron case is usually inaccurate. To test the thermometer, bring water 
into the condition of active boiling, warm the thermometer gradually in the steam 
and then plunge it into the water. If it indicate a fixed temperature of two hundred 
and twelve degrees, the instrument is a good one. 

How to Keep Eggs Fresh. The great secret in keeping eggs 

consists in entirely excluding the air from the interior. The lining next to the shell 
is, when in its natural stage, impervious to air, and the albumen is calculated to sus¬ 
tain it, but dampness and heat will cause decay, and, if the egg is allowed to lie in 
one position, especially upon one side, the yolk sinks through the albumen and set¬ 
tles upon the lining, and, not possessing proper qualities for preserving the skin in 
a healthy condition, it dries, and air penetrates and begins the work of destruction. 
Where eggs are set upon their small ends, the yolk is much less liable to reach 
the lining of the shell. Where eggs are packed in a barrel, keg or bucket, it is a 
good plan to turn the whole quantity onto a different side once in a while. 

Indelible Ink. An indelible ink that cannot be erased, even 

with acids, can be obtained from the following recipe; To good gall ink add a 
strong solution of Prussian blue dissolved in distilled water. This will form a writ¬ 
ing fluid which cannot be erased without destruction of the paper. The ink will 
write greenish blue, but afterward will turn black. 

219 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

To Get a Broken Cork Out of a Bottle. If in drawing a cork, it 

breaks, and the lower part falls down into the liquid, tie a long loop in a bit of 
twine, or small cord, and put it in, holding the bottle so as to bring the piece of cork 
near to the lower part of the neck. Catch it in the loop, so as to hold it stationary. 
You can then easily extract it with a corkscrew. 

A Wash for Cleaning Silver. Mix together half an ounce of 

fine salt, half an ounce of powdered alum, and half an ounce of cream of tartar. Put 
them into a large white-ware pitcher, and pour on two quarts of water, and stir them 
frequently, till entirely dissolved. Then transfer the mixture to clean bottles, and 
cork them closely. Before using it, shake the bottles well. Pour some of the liquid 
into a bowl, and wash the silver all over with it, using an old, soft, fine linen cloth. 
Let it stand about ten minutes, and then rub it dry, with a buckskin. It will make the 
silver look like new. 

To Remove the Odor from a Vial. The odor of its last contents 

may be removed from a vial by filling it with cold water, and letting it stand in any 
airy place uncorked for three days, changing the water every day. 

To Loosen a Glass Stopper. The manner in which apotheca¬ 
ries loosen glass stoppers when there is difficulty in getting them out, is to press the 
thumb of the right hand very hard against the lower part of the stopper, and then 
give the stopper a twist the other way, with the thumb and forefinger of the left 
hand, keeping the bottle stiff in a steady position. 

To Make Shoes or Boots Water-Proof. Melt together, in a 

pipkin, equal quantities of beeswax and mutton suet. While liquid rub it over the 
leather, including the soles. 

To Soften Boots and Shoes. Kerosene will soften boots and 

shoes which have been hardened by water, and render them as pliable as new. 

To Remove Stains, Spots, and Mildew from Furniture. Take 

half a pint of ninety-eight per cent, alcohol, a quarter of an ounce each of pulver¬ 
ized resin and gum shellac, add half a pint of linseed oil, shake well and apply with 
a brush or sponge. Sweet oil will remove finger marks from varnished furniture, 
and kerosene from oiled furniture. 

To Freshen Gilt Frames. Gilt frames maybe revived by care¬ 
fully dusting them, and then washing with one ounce of soda beaten up with the 
whites of three eggs. Scraped patches should be touched up with gold paint. Cas¬ 
tile soap and water, with proper care, may be used to clean oil paintings. Other 
methods should not be employed without some skill. 

To Fill Cracks in Plaster. Use vinegar instead of water to 

mix your plaster of Paris. The resultant mass will be like putty, and will not “set” 
for twenty or thirty minutes, whereas if you use water the plaster will become hard 
almost immediately, before you have time to use it. Push it into the cracks and 
smooth it off nicely with a tableknife. 

To Toughen Lamp Chimneys and Glassware. Immerse the ar¬ 
ticle in a pot filled with cold water, to which some common salt has been added. 
Boil the water well, then cool slowly. Glass treated in this way will resist any sud« 
den change of temperature. 

To Remove Paint from Window-Glass. Rub it well with hot, 

sharp vinegar. 

To Clean Stovepipe. A piece of zinc put on the live coals in 

the stove will clean out the stovepipe. 

To Brighten Carpets. Carpets after the dust has been beaten 
out may be brightened by scattering upon them cornmeal mixed with salt and then 
sweeping it off. Mix salt and meal in equal proportions. Carpets should be thor¬ 
oughly beaten on the wrong side first and then on the right side, after which spots 
may be removed by the use of ox-gall or ammonia and water. 

Kerosene Stains in Carpets may be removed by sprinkling 

buckwheat flour over the spot. If one sprinkling is not enough, repeat. 

220 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

To Keep Flowers Fresh exclude them from the air. To do this 

wet them thoroughly, put in a damp box, and cover with wet raw cotton or wet 
newspaper, then place in a cool spot. To preserve bouquets, put a little saltpetre 
in the water you use for your-bouquets, and the flowers will live for a fortnight. 

To Preserve Brooms. Dip them for a minute or two in a 
kettle of boiling suds once a week and they will last much longer, making them 
tough and pliable. A carpet wears much longer swept with a broom cared for in 
this manner. 

To Clean Brassware. Mix one ounce of oxalic acid, six 

ounces of rotten stone, all in powder, one ounce of sweet oil, and sufficient water 
to make a paste. Apply a small proportion, and rub dry with a flannel or leather. 
The liquid dip most generally used consists of nitric and sulphuric acids, but this is 
more corrosive. 

Polish or Enamel for Shirt Bosoms is made by melting to¬ 
gether one ounce of white wax and two ounces of spermaceti; heat gently and turn 
into a very shallow pan; when cold cut or break in pieces. When making boiled 
starch the usual way, enough for a dozen bosoms, add to it a piece of the polish the 
size of a hazel nut. 

To Keep Out Mosquitoes. If a bottle of the oil of pennyroyal is 
left uncorked in a room at night, not a mosquito, nor any other blood-sucker, will 
be found there in the morning. 

Destruction of Rats. The following recipe for the destruction 

originated with Dr. Ure, and is highly recommended as the best known means of 
getting rid of these most obnoxious and destructive vermin. Melt hog’s lard in a 
bottle plunged in water, heated to about 150 degrees of Fahrenheit^introduce into 
it half an ounce of phosphorus for every pound of lard, then add a pint of proof 
spirit, or whisky, cork the bottle firmly after its contents have been heated to 150 de¬ 
grees, taking it at the same time out of the water, and agitate smartly until the phos¬ 
phorus becomes uniformly diffused, forming a milky-looking liquid. This liquid, 
being cooled, will afford a white compound of phosphorus and lard, from which the 
spirit spontaneously separates, and may be poured off" to be used again for the same 
purpose, but not for drinking, for none of it enters into the combination, but it 
merely serves to comminute the phosphorus, and diffuse it in very small particles 
through the lard. This compound, on being warmed very gently, may be poured 
out into a mixture of wheat flour and sugar, incorporated therewith, and then 
flavored with oil of rhodium, or not, at pleasure. The flavor may be varied with oil 
of aniseed, etc. This dough, being made into pellets, is to be laid into rat holes. 
By its luminousness in the dark, it attracts their notice, and, being agreeable to their 
palates and noses, it is readily eaten, and proves certainly fatal. 

To Kill Cockroaches. A teacupful of well bruised plaster of 
Paris, mixed with double the quantity of oatmeal, to which a little sugar may be 
added, although this last named ingredient is not essential. Strew it on the floor, 
or into the chinks where they frequent. 

Earwigs are very destructive insects, their favorite food being 

the petals of roses, pinks, dahlias, and other flowers. They may be caught by driv¬ 
ing stakes into the ground, and placing on each an inverted flower pot, for the ear¬ 
wigs will climb up and take refuge under the pot, when the^ may be taken out and 
killed. Clean bowls of tobacco pipes, placed in like manner on the tops of smaller 
sticks, are very good traps, or very deep holes may be made in the ground with a 
crowbar, into which they will fall, and may be destroyed by boiling water. 

To Destroy Ants. Drop some quicklime on the mouth of their 

nest, and wash it in with boiling water, or dissolve some camphor in spirits of wine, 
then mix with water, and pour into their haunts, or tobacco water, which has been 
found effectual. They are averse to strong scents. Camphor, or a sponge saturated 
with creosote, will prevent their infesting a cupboard. To prevent their climbing 
up trees, place a ring of tar about the trunk, or a circle of rag moistened occasion¬ 
ally with creosote. 


221 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

To Prevent Moths. In the month of April or May, beat ;your 

fur garments well with a small cane or elastic stick, then wrap them up in linen, 
without pressing them too hard, and put betwixt the folds some camphor in small 
lumps; then put your furs in this state in boxes well closed. When the furs are 
wanted for use, beat them well as before, and expose them for twenty-four hours to 
the air, which will take away the smell of the camphor. If the fur has long hair, as 
bear or fox, add to the camphor an equal quantity of black pepper in powder. 

To Get Rid of Moths. 1. Procure shavings of cedar wood, and 

Inclose in muslin bags, which can be distributed freely among the clothes. 

2. Procure shavings of camphor wood, and inclose in bags. 

3. Sprinkle pimento (allspice) berries among the clothes. 

4 . Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk plant. 

6 . To destroy the eggs, when deposited in woolen cloths, etc., 

use a solution of acetate of potash in spirits of rosemary, fifteen grains to the pint. 

Bed Bugs. Spirits of naphtha rubbed with a small painter’s 

brush into every part of the bedstead is a certain way of getting rid of bugs. The 
mattress and binding of the bed should be examined, and the same process attended 
to, as they generally harbor more in these parts than in the bedstead. Ten 
cents’ worth of naphtha is sufficient for one bed. 

Bug Poison. Proof spirit, one pint; camphor, two ounces; oil 
of turpentine, four ounces; corrosive sublimate, one ounce. Mix. A correspondent 
says, “I have been for a long time troubled with bugs, and never could get rid of 
them by any clean and expeditious method, until a friend told me to suspend a 
small bag of camphor to the bed, just in the center, overhead. I did so, and the 
enemy was most effectually repulsed, and has not made his appearance since—not 
even for a reconnoissance!” This is a simple method of getting rid of these pests, 
and is worth a trial to see if it be effectual in other cases. 

Mixture for Destroying Flies. Infusion of quassia, one pint; 

brown sugar, four ounces; ground pepper, two ounces. To be well mixed together, 
and put in small, shallow dishes when required. 

To Destroy Flies in a room, take half a teaspoonful of black 
pepper in powder, one teaspoonful of brown sugar, and one tablespoonful of cream, 
mix them well together, and place them in the room on a plate, where the flies are 
troublesome, and they will soon disappear. 

How to Destroy Insects. The Bureau of Entomology, Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, sends out the following, for use as insecticides on 
or about plants, etc.; London purple—To twenty pounds flour from one-quarter to 
one-half pound is added and well mixed. This is applied with a sifter or blower. 
With forty gallons of water one-quarter to one-half pound is mixed for spraying. 
Paris Green—With twenty pounds of flour from three-quarters to one pound is mixed 
and applied by sifting or by a blower. The same amount of the insecticide to forty 
gallons of water is used as a spray. Bisulphate of Carbon—For use in the ground 
a quantity is poured or injected among the roots that are being infected. Against 
insects damaging stored grain of museum material a small quantity is used in an 
air-tight vessel. Carbolic Acid—A solution of one part in 100 of water is used aga'nsl 
parasites on domestic animals and their barns and sheds; also on the surface of 
plants and among the roots in the ground. Helebore—The powder is sifted on alone 
or mixed one part to twenty of flour. With one gallon of water one-quarter pound 
is mixed for spraying. Kerosene-Milk Emulsion—To one part milk add two parts 
keros.ene, and churn by force pump or other agitator. The butter-like emulsion is 
diluted ad libitum with water. An easier method is to simply mix one part kerosene 
with eight of milk. Soap Emulsion—In one gallon hot water one-half pound whale 
oil soap is dissolved. This, instead of milk, is mixed to an emulsion with kerosene 
in the same manner and proportion as above. Pyrethrum, Persian Insect Powder 
—Is blown or sifted on dry, also applied in water one gallon to a tablespoonful 
Of the powder, well stirred and then sprayed. Tobacco Decoction—This is made as 
Strong as possit le as a wash or spray to kill insect pests on animals and plants. 

222 


BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 

9 

I N the beginning it should be understood that the term 
“breaking” should never be used in the sense of 
subduing the spirit of the horse. Too many horses 
have their spirit broken while being trained to work. 
The man who has his own best interests at heart will not 
try to do this. 

The horse is a very intelligent animal, and as soon as he 
learns that you are trying to teach him something he 
begins to respond to your efforts, and each succeeding 
step is easier. 

In training a young horse the first thing he is taught 
should be practiced until he is thoroughly proficient before 
anything else is taken up. This will perfect his education 
as it progresses, and in the end he wall be well-broken and 
tractable, because he has discovered that you do not 
intend to harm him. 

It pays to take great pains in training a horse, for in 
every market an animal that can be proven to be intelli¬ 
gent and easily taught will bring a better price than one 
without special training. 

Before beginning the process of training, it is well to 
become well acquainted with a few rules to meet emer¬ 
gencies. They are these: 

Whatever transpires at the front of the horse impels 
him backward. 

Whatever takes place in the rear of a horse inclines 
him to forward action. 

All side motions affect in like manner—in the opposite 
direction. 

In all our operations with a horse it should be our 
highest aim to avoid giving him pain when in close 
contact with him. 

Whenever he becomes entangled by accident, or we do 
it purposely, we should stay away from him until he 
realizes his utter helplessness to free himself, then go to 

223 


BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 


his assistance and kindly relieve him, when he will 
appreciate us and become our willing servant. But if by 
entanglement we abuse him, then, whenever he finds 
himself encumbered in any way, he naturally goes to 
work to free himself and get away from his handler, 
making a dangerous horse instead of what he should be, 
kind and gentle. 

We should endeavor to control our horses by means and 
methods which will demonstrate to them our superior 
power, but associated with kindness whenever in close 
contact with them. 

In connection with the means to demonstrate our 
superior power over the horse, we should never forget 
that the stomach is the most direct road to his affec¬ 
tions. Consequently, notwithstanding we may lay him 
down, deprive him of the use of his legs, etc., we should 
feed him sugar, sweet apples, cookies or whatever he 
relishes from our hands, and it is astonishing how soon 
the wild or even vicious horse will become as docile as a 
lamb. 

The reader will, after reading these rules until they are 
firmly fixed in his mind, observe that in this treatise the 
means set forth as best calculated to subdue the horse 
are not intended to injure him in any way, but to enable 
his handler to demonstrate his superior power without 
any manifestation of anger or abuse. 

The lessons should always be short and impressive, and 
never progress faster than the horse fully understands 
what we want of him. Much difference will be found in 
animals in this respect, some learning quickly from the 
start and others being slow to comprehend what is wanted 
of them. 

Handling by the Head. 

As most of our horses are controlled by the head, it is 
thought best to give illustrations of easy and effective 
means of controlling the horse through the mouth. 
Harsh bits that lacerate the sensitive lips and gums of 

224 


BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 



the horse should never be used. The best way to begin to 
teach the horse through the mouth is by means of a small 
and comparatively soft rope instead of iron bits. It is 
much more effective and will not bruise the sensitive 
tissues of the mouth. When we pull on the rope it binds 
the mouth, and does not let go until the horse comes to 
us or we go to him and loosen it, which is at once appre¬ 
ciated by the horse, and makes him look upon us as a 
friend in need instead of an enemy. 

How to Make a Stallion or Safety Bridle. 

Take about twenty feet of manila rope one-fourth of 
an inch in diameter. First throw one end of the rope 
over the neck of the horse with the left hand; reach 
under the neck with the right hand and grasp the rope 

225 






















BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 


and tie a bow-line knot quite snug to the neck, not really 
tight, but snug; now pass the left hand under this part 
of the neck and draw through enough of the rope to go 
into the mouth, as shown in figure 1. 

Next, stand facing the rear of the horse and take the 
rope in the right hand about one foot from the neck of 
the horse, then reach over the rope with the left hand 
and take hold of the rope with the back of the hand up, 
as shown in figure 1. 

Now pass this rope as held in this way over the horse’s 
hea.d, bringing the right hand to the base of the ear and 
the left hand down under the neck, as seen in figure 2. 

Now change hands, taking hold of the rope with the 
right hand where held by the left hand, and open the 
mouth of the horse by pressing the soft end of the finger 
or thumb of the left hand against the roof of the mouth, 
when he will readily open his mouth and the rope may be 
passed through. Now changing hands again, take hold of 
the rope just at the left side of the mouth with the left 
hand; then pull on the. long end of the rope, with the 
right hand, to adapt the rope to the head, and you have 
the most effective bridle ever invented for controlling 
strong, vicious horses or biting stallions. 

By pulling this rope only moderately tight the lips of 
the horse are forced between the molar teeth, so that it 
is impossible for him to close his mouth and bite, even 
though you put your hand into his mouth and hold it 
there. 

When you have it snugly applied to the head of the 
horse (not loosely) permit him to run away from you to 
the length of the rope and with a sudden pull pivot him on 
his hind feet or stop him. He is willing to stop, no mat¬ 
ter how well he feels, for he finds that his head and 
mouth are in a vise, with apparently no relief. Now if he 
does not come to you, go to him, pat him caressingly on 
the head and gently loosen the rope in his mouth. He is 
now free again and possibly may be reckless enough to 
try again with the same results. Do as before three or 
four times, if necessary, until he fully realizes that he 
had better not go the full length of the rope away from 
you, for if he does the rope binds his mouth as before. 

If he conies to you never disappoint his expectation of 
relief and kind attentions when in close contact with you, 
which insures his confidence in you—that, no matter what 
trouble he gets into, you can relieve him and help him 
out of his difficulty. 


220 


BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 



With these directions the reader can fully understand 
the principle of handling- vicious horses without serious 
abuse or injury. The horse is a very apt scholar for g-ood 
or evil, and it rests with the trainer which it shall be. 

A Good, Cheap Riding Bridle. 

Cut No. 3 represents a cheap and very effective riding 
bridle. It consists of a piece of manila or cotton rope 
one-fourth of an inch in diameter, from six to eight feet 
long. By placing the middle of the rope on the top of the 
head of the horse and drawing down on either side and 
passing through the mouth from each side and up on the 
top of the neck, and tying a knot at the withers to keep 

227 














BREAKING AND TRAINING NORSES, 



Fig- 3- A Cheap Riding Bridle. 


from dropping out of the mouth, you have a good bridle. 
The illustration shows the bridle separate as well as on 
his head. 


Power of Man Over the Horse. 

Whenever the trainer finds that the horse fails to give 
him undivided attention with the application of the 
safety bridle and its associate treatment, he should pro¬ 
ceed to demonstrate his superior strength through other 
means, in connection with continued kind treatment. 

Take first about fifteen feet of three-eighths inch rope, 
double it at about one-third its length, slip a two-inch 
iron ring over the double portion, and tie a knot in the 
double rope so as to hold the ring in such position that the 
doubled end will make a crupper and back piece, the 
required length to have the ring rest at the place on the 
back where the harness saddle should be. The remaining 
portion of the rope makes a surcingle, as shown in figure 
4. In this lesson the horse should wear an ordinary five- 
ring halter. 

Now take twenty or thirty feet of quarter-inch rope and 
pass one end through the ring on the back, down the right 
side of the neck, through the ring in the halter, back 

228 









BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 



along- the same side of the neck, and tie securely to the 
ring- on the back. 

Next take any stout strap that will buckle around the 
fore leg-, put a stout iron ring on it and buckle closely, 
but not too tightly, around the front left pastern. With 
another strap, run through the ring at the leg and 
through the surcingle, and fasten' the foot close to the 
belly, as seen in figure 4. As soon as the leg is securely 
fastened give the horse his liberty to about the length of 
the rope, when he is apt to be halted, as seen in figure 4. 

Do not try to throw him down, but let him hobble around 
on three legs until he gets tired, being sure to keep at a 
distance from him all the time, letting him realize that 
the is in trouble. 

By keeping his head to one side, with slight tension on 
the hand rope, he will soon get tired and drop to his 
knees, when his head should be pulled to one side, as seen 
in figure 5. Continue to stay away from the horse, and 
pull hard enough on the rope to hold his head to one side. 
He will soon get tired and fall over. Then pull hard 
enough to bring his nose to the ring on his back, as seen 
in figure 6. 

After the horse has lain in this position for a minute or 
less he will make a desperate struggle to arise, but if the 
hand rope is kept tight it is impossible for him to do so. 
Just as soon as the struggle is over approach him, keep- 

229 


Fig. 4. Cheap Casting Harness. 






BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES . 


F 




' .—-.€ 


ALAJ / 






- v Mo 


/ 7 

Hi 's. »„> /;■*- 

1,1 ■OWV; SW/7. ~ ' gV *■ 

Fig. 5- The Horse in Trouble. 




ing the hand rope tight, and caress him on the head and 
neck and begin relaxing on the hand rope until he is 
stretched out on the ground in an easy position, as shown 
in figure 7. 

If he fails to appreciate the comfortable position given 
him and attempts to get up, simply spring away from 
him and pull on the hand rope until he is in your power 
and in an uncomfortable position again. Hold him in 
this position for a little longer time than at first and 
until he ceases to struggle, and then approach and release 
him as before. By the second or third time he has tried 
to get up and get away he will find he is in your power 
and will not try to rise. He will also become convinced 
that whenever you are near him he is comfortable, and 
you can begin to make him familiar with strange objects, 
all the time keeping tight hold on the hand rope in case 
of a renewed attempt at freedom. It will not be long 
before you can open an umbrella in his face or throw 
blankets and robes on him, without frightening him in 
the least. Let him look at and smell of all things of 
the kind, and he will soon find that they are not 
dangerous, and before long you can take off the halter 
and ropes and sit or lie on him without protest on his 
part. 

Always remember that the horse is not to be beaten or 
scolded in a loud voice at any time when being trained, 
and in the end the wildest and most spirited animal will 
become tractable and docile and as eager to learn as you 
are to teach him. In fact, the most spirited horses are 

230 










BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 



Fig. 6. The Horse in Greater Trouble. 


usually the most tractable, once they are convinced that 
they are to have kind treatment on every occasion. 

Having made yourself familiar with the horse and hav¬ 
ing convinced him that you are his superior, he will 
become your friend and use his great intelligence in 
attaining to a higher education. This will add to his 
value more than enough to repay all the trouble and 
patience required to give him proper training from the 
beginning. 

Willfully Vicious Horses. 

Sometimes it is necessary to reform a willfully vicious 
horse that has learned bad tricks from a wrong system of 
training. With proper education no horse will be a run¬ 
away or a kicker, but when we come into possession of 
such a one it is well to know how to bring about a reform. 
It is harder to teach a horse to abandon vicious tricks 
than it is to teach him those things we would have him 
know in the first place, and it is often necessary to use 
somewhat rougher means. It is never necessary, how¬ 
ever, to resort to absolute cruelty to conquer a horse, and 
the use of a whip or other instrument of punishment 
never does permanent good. 

231 





BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 



Fig. 7 . The Horse in a Comfortable Position. 


If a kicker or a runaway is to be broken of his bah 
habit the lesson should be given on soft, spongy ground, 
if possible, or, if such a place is not convenient, knee-pads 
may be used. These conditions are advised only for the 
purpose of saving the horse from pain, as it is a very rare 
thing to permanently injure a horse with any of the 
appliances here advised. 

Commence operations by taking the saddle and crupper 
of a single harness. Use both girths, in order to keep the 
shaft-holders down in their proper position. 

Put on the bridle with the lines attached, and pass the 
lines through the shaft-holders instead of through the 
terrets on the saddle. By arranging the lines in this 
manner it is impossible for the horse to turn around 
facing you, as the lines are so low down he cannot get 
them over his back and must keep his head away from 
you as long as you wish him to. 

When the lines have been adjusted, buckle a strap 
neatly around each pastern in front. Take about twenty 
feet of quarter-inch rope and put one end through under 
the girths next the body, pass it down under the strap of 
the pastern on the right leg, and back under the girths 
again, and down to and tie securely to the strap on the 

232 









BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 



Fig. 8. Controlling a Vicious Horse. 


pastern of the left leg - . Then take the rope and lines in 
hand and commence proceedings as shown in figure 8. 

If with this means applied the horse tries to run away 
or rears, you proceed to draw both feet up to his body as 
shown in the cut. 

If he tries to run away at the start, simply pull on the 
rope end, and he will come to the ground and cannot arise 
until you allow him to do so. 

If he persists until he gets warm and excited, give him 
a few minutes to rest and reflect. The next time he will 
give up easier and will soon understand the futility of 
trying to get away from you, and with a very few lessons 
will begin to believe that he cannot take the bit. 

If the horse is a kicker it is well to let him kick a time 
or two and then throw him by pulling on the rope. He 
will soon give over and abandon the habit. This is the 
best appliance for controlling a vicious horse, as it allows 
him to walk as well when it is on as when it is off, and 
gives the trainer complete control of his movements. 

If the horse is not exceedingly vicious he can be trained 

238 





BREAKING AND TRAINING HORSES. 



Fig. 9 . Kicking Attachment for Single or Double Harness. 


to give up running away or kicking by using the same 
arrangement with only one foot attached to the rope 
instead of two. 

Where the horse is a confirmed kicker it is a good plan 
to tie a string of sleigh-bells to his rump or a sack of bran 
that will hang down far enough to touch his hocks, and 
then put on the rope and give him his lesson, after letting 
him kick with both feet for a minute or two. 

In training a young horse to drive this plan of having 
one foot under control is a good one to teach him to stand, 
until told to go and stop promptly at the word. 

A restive horse that will not stand until given the 
word, or will not stop promptly, often injures its owner as 
badly as one known to be vicious would, because while the 
vicious horse is watched the restless or disobedient one 
is not. 

If the willfully vicious kicker has been taught the 
lesson just given and still will not give up the habit, you 
may resort to a severer method—one, however, that 
should not be used until all other means have failed. 

234 










THE KIND OF HORSES TO BREED. 


This is a kicking attachment which causes the horse to 
inflict severe pain on himself every time he tries to kick, 
either with one or both feet. 

The illustration No. 9 shows this so plainly that 
explanation is not necessary further than to point out 
that the rope is placed over the top of the head and the 
ends run through the bit rings and between the fore legs 
under the girths, where they are attached to the pulley 
through which the rope from the straps on the hind legs 
runs. This arrangement requires a pulley and four short 
straps, as shown, but in the absence of a pulley a stout 
iron ring will answer quite well. 

Switching and rein-catching are two annoying vices 
that horses contract, usually more from nervousness than 
from any meanness. Rein-catching is dangerous, as it is 
impossible to control a horse with the rein held fast under 
the tail. 

To cure these habits tie a stout cord to a wisp of the 
hair of the tail, on the under side, and attach it to the 
trace on either side, tying it short enough to prevent the 
tail from being raised. This helps in two ways. It keeps 
the tail from being raised over the line and prevents the 
line from getting under the root of the tail. If this plan 
is patiently followed the habit will be forgotten in most . 
cases, though not always. 

The balky horse is the worst one to handle of all vicious 
horses. When once the habit becomes fixed it is hard to 
break it up. This can never be done by abuse, and about 
the best means is to tie the tail to the double-tree and 
start the team up, when the surprise will cause the balky 
animal to forget himself. The tail should be tied with a 
rope so arranged in a bow-knot that the driver can release 
the tail by pulling on the long end of the rope, which is 
carried in his hand. Such a knot is easily tied, and a few 
trials will often permanently cure the worst balker. 

The Kind of Horses to Breed. 

The demand for good horses is growing larger each 
year, as the export trade in American horses is growing 
all the time. The day of the street-car horse is past, 
however, and the markets do not call for anything but 
the best class of heavy horses or a class that can show a 
speedy gait. 

Farmers should begin to breed the kind called for, and 
they will find a ready sale at good prices. The horses 

235 


GOOD POINTS ON HORSE-BREEDING. 


most in demand and which will continue in demand 
may be divided into live classes : 

Drivers and Coach Horses.— These must be of good color, 
well bred, from 15.3 to 16.2 hands high, with line heads 
and necks, plenty of bone and substance, with good 
knee-action, smooth make, with plenty of quality, short 
back and round barrel, and must be good travelers, and 
if possessed of some speed it will be better. This class is 
continually advancing in price and the export demand is 
growing very rapidly. 

Cab Horses.— The cab horse should be rather block}^ 
weighing about 1,100 pounds and standing 15.2 hands high, 
smooth-made substance and bone, a fair traveler and fair 
action. This class can be produced by breeding small, 
well-made mares to good Percheron stallions. 

The ’Bus Horse.— The ’bus horse should weigh from 1,200 
to 1,400 pounds, and stand from 15.3 to 16 hands high, 
smooth and rugged made, a little on the blocky order, 
with fair action, so as to move off at a medium gait, and 
should shape himself well in harness. This is a very 
salable horse in American markets and also sells at high 
prices in foreign markets, as a general purpose horse. 
This class can be produced by the same cross used in 
making the cab horse, the only difference being that 
a somewhat larger and more rugged mare may be used. 

The Draft Horse.—This class should weigh from 1,500 to 
1,800 pounds, blocky made, good bone and smooth finish, 
good quality and action and a first-class horse in every 
respect. This is a class that is alwaj^s in demand both in 
domestic and foreign markets and will meet with a ready 
sale at high prices. Brewers and others having heavy 
loads to transfer do not stop at prices when a good horse 
of this class is wanted, and the demand is constant. 

The American Trotter.— This class must be first-class in 
every respect, perfectly sound, high-bred, good bone and 
finish, and the more speed the better. These qualities, 
with a good disposition and spirited action, form an 
animal that brings the highest price of any class bred. 
While not largely bred on the farms of the country, the 
production of a high quality of this class soon makes a 
reputation for the breeder that brings him high prices 
for his marketable stock. 

Good Points on Horse-Breeding. 

No one breed of draft horses possesses all the desirable 
qualities. The draft horse must combine weight and 

236 


GOOD POINTS ON HORSE-BREEDING. 


quality, and the better the combination of both the more 
valuable will be the horse. The draft horse must have 
strong, clean action, both at walk and trot, and plenty of 
life, but should not be fretful. 

Quality in form, disposition and general conformation 
must be coupled with size and style to g-et the best in 
each class of horses. 

The best horses of each class will always sell. Strive 
to raise only the best, and your stock will constantly 
improve. 

A slug-g-ish, lifeless sort of sire or dam will not produce 
a g"ood colt. 

The sire and dam should always be kept in the best 
health, by sufficient exercise and muscle-forming- food, 
but should never be covered with soft, flabby flesh. 

Brood mares must have steady exercise, but not of the 
violent kind. Their food should be laxative and not too 
concentrated. Heating- and constipating- diets must be 
avoided. 

Avoid all extremes in exercising- and caring- for breed¬ 
ing- stock. 

A carbolic solution used on the navel of colts at birth 
acts as a preventive of blood poisoning-, which often 
causes swelled joints or even death. 

Skim-milk in moderate quantities is an excellent thing 
for colts after weaning. 

The colt should be specially well fed with muscle and 
bone-forming food the first two years of its life. 

Liberal feeding of the young and growing colt is as 
necessary as good breeding to make a good, well-developed 
horse. The two must be combined. 

Oats and bran are the best two grain-foods. A small 
quantity of oil-meal in the food will keep a colt in a 
healthy, laxative, growing condition. 

Roots, especially carrots, are most excellent for colts 
and horses, when fed in moderation. 

The education of the horse should begin with careful 
handling at a very early age and continue until his edu¬ 
cation is finished. 

Horses should not be put on the market before they are 
five or six years old, and should always be well broken, 
well groomed and in good flesh when put on the market. 

Allow the horse water often, and before feeding, rather 
than immediately after. 

Too much coarse fodder should not be fed at one time. 
Scores of horses are ruined every year by being fed too 

237 


HOW TO SELECT A HORSE. 


much hay. It must be borne in mind that the stomach 
of the horse is small. 

Thorough grooming of work-horses saves feed and adds 
to their comfort and health. This one fact alone, 
impressed on the mind of the man who is careless about 
grooming his horses, will, if attended to, be worth a good 
many dollars every year. 

The colt’s hoofs should be trimmed into shax>e with 
farrier’s pinchers occasionally. Many defects of the 
hoofs and joints are due to neglect of the feet. 

A sound, healthy frog should not be cut away or trimmed 
down. Simply clean off or free from ragged parts. The 
frog is the cushion of the foot, to save jarring the body, 
and should not be reduced in size, unless diseased or 
accidentally damaged. 

The shoe should bear evenly on all parts of themormal 
hoof. 

The hoof should never be burned with a hot shoe in 
fitting. The shoe should be fitted to the hoof, not the 
hoof to the shoe. 

How to Select a Horse. 

The head of the farm horse should be a fair size in pro¬ 
portion to the size of the animal. There has been a craze 
for fine heads and a very short ear. This is a mistake. 
If you purchase a colt with a very small head and ear 
you will find to your loss, when matured, that you have an 
undersized animal of comparatively small value. Both 
head and ear should be of medium size, with considerable 
space between the eyes. 

This is certain indication of brain power, and, taken in 
conjunction with the eye itself, is the most important part 
of the head. 

See that the eye is clear and full, standing well out. It 
should express vigor, intelligence and good disposition. 

The crown of the head should not be as wide as the 
forehead—a wide-crowned head is frequently indicative 
of a stubborn disposition. 

The ears should be brisk and upturned and decidedly 
active. 

The face should be flat—not dished like the Arabian, 
nor yet so full as to be Roman-nosed, although the latter 
fault is the less objectionable of the two. 

The nostrils should be wide, to admit of the utmost 
freedom in breathing, the jaws well developed, but not 
too large, the throat clean and well formed. 

238 


HOW TO SELECT A HORSE. 


The neck should be strong-, well muscled and well 
arched on the shoulders, which should be powerful, and 
well sloped backward so as to allow freedom of action in 
front. Horses with straight shoulders are very seldom good 
movers, and for riding purposes are simply intolerable. 

The chest should be wide and deep, giving plenty of 
room for lung power, but the fore-legs should be set under 
and not on the outside of the shoulder. 

Many wide-chested horses are poor travelers, for the 
reason that their legs are not properly placed on their 
shoulders, so that in traveling they are inclined to 
“paddle” or throw out their front heels. This is a 
serious defect and should be avoided. 

The model farm horse should be very thick around the 
heart, his ribs well sprung from the backbone and coming 
well down to the flanks. The coupling should be short, 
the loin strong, the hind-quarter long and level, the tail 
set up pretty high, the arms, thighs and second thighs 
particularly strong and well-muscled—this for the reason 
that herein lies his propelling power. If he is. weak in 
the loins and thighs—no matter how perfect in other 
parts—he cannot be a powerful horse. 

The hocks are the most important joints in a horse and 
should receive the most critical attention. They should 
be broad from a side view and perfectly clear from all 
fullness or fleshiness or any unsoundness, such as spavin 
or curb. Many an otherwise valuable horse is rendered 
useless by defective hock-joints. They must not only be 
free from defects, but of such shape as might keep them 
from becoming defective by unusual strains.. 

The cannon-bones should descend perpendicularly from 
hock to pastern, and from front knee to fetlock joints. 
The bone must be ample, as light-boned horses will not 
stand the strain of heavy work. The muscles and sinews 
should stand out prominently, giving the bones a flat, 
clean, cordy look. 

Look particularly for crooked or curby hind legs. This 
is about the worst defect in a horse’s legs, and must 
always be avoided. 

The feet should be of good size, with fairly wide hoof- 
heads, the texture being as tough as possible and the 
heels prominent and deep. This matter should be care¬ 
fully looked after when making a selection.. Bad feet 
result largely from defective shoeing. Avoid shallow, 
flat, brittle or very small feet, contracted heels, ringbones 
or side bones. 


239 


HOW TO SELECT A HORSE. 

The model farm horse should be full of vitality, carry 
himself gaily and cheerfully and walk or trot squarely 
and freely. 

In walking, a long, easy, swinging gait is most desirable, 
and the horse must keep his hoofs straight forward, 
neither turning them in nor out. He must keep his hocks 
pretty closely together, as straddling is not to be toler¬ 
ated. Wide hind action is all right in a fast trotter or 
hunter, but for a farm horse or a carriage horse it is an 
unpardonable defect. At each bend of the knees the sole 
of the foot should be turned up so as to be visible, and the 
same at each flex of the hocks. 

Never select a horse while he is in harness. Take him 
with only a halter on and walk and trot him back and 
forth, and then watch him while some one else leads him 
past you, toward you and away from you. If possible 
turn him loose and watch him while he has perfect liberty 
of action. If he does not suit you in every way, if gait, 
action and movement of every kind are not perfectly 
natural and free from fault, do not take him. A good 
horse is a thing of beauty, but a defective one is a con¬ 
stant aggravation. 

¥ 

Consumption of Hay. 

The amount of hay consumed by different animals does 
not vary greatly from three pounds daily for each hundred 
pounds weight of the animals. The following table is the 
result of various experiments by different persons, and 
will be useful for farmers who wish to determine, by calcu¬ 
lation beforehand, how their hay will hold out for the 
winter (500 cubic feet of timothy hay, in a full bale, being 
about one ton): 


Working horses.3.08 pounds 

Working oxen .2.40 “ 

Milk cows.2.35 “ 

Young growing cattle.3.08 “ 

Steers...2.84 “ 

Dry cows.2.42 “ 

Pigs (estimated)..3.00 “ 

Sheep.3.00 “ 


All the articles enumerated in these food tables are 
estimated as of good quality. If the fodder be of poor 
quality more must be allowed. 

240 












How to Tell the Age of a Horse. 

The safest way of determining the age of a horse 
is by the appearance of the teeth, which undergo 
certain changes in the course of years. 

Eight to fourteen days after birth, the first middle nippers of the 
set of milk teeth are cut (Fig. x), four to six weeks afterwards the 
pair next to them (Fig. 2), and finally, after six or eight months, the 
last (Fig. 3). 

All these milk teeth have a well defined body and neck, and a slender fang, and 
on their front surface grooves of furrows, which disappear from the middle nippers 
at the end of one year, from the next 
pair in two years, and from the in¬ 
cisive teeth (cutters) in three years. 

At the age of two the nippers be¬ 
come loose and fall out, in their 
places appear two permanent 
teeth, with deep, black cavities, and 
full, sharp edges (Fig. 4). 

At the age of three, the next pair 
(Fig. 5) fall out. 

At four years old, the corner teeth 
fall out(Fig. 6). 

At five years old, fhe horse has 
his permanent set of teeth. 

The teeth grow in length as the 
horse advances in years, but at the 
same time his teeth are worn away 
by use about one-twelfth of an 
inch every year, so that the black 
cavities of the center nippers below disappear in the sixth year (Fig 7), those of the 
next pair in the seventh year (Fig. 8), and those of the corner teeth in the eighth 
year (Fig. 9). Also the outer corner teeth of upper and lower jaw just meet at eight 
years of age. 

At nine years old, cups leave the two center nippers above, and each of the( two 
upper corner teeth has a little sharp protrusion at the extreme outer comer (Fig. 10). 

At the age of ten, the cups disappear from the adjoining teeth. 

At the age of eleven, the cups disappear from the corner teeth above, and are 
only indicated by brownish spots. 

The oval form becomes broader, and changes, from the twelfth to the sixteenth 
year, more and more into a triangular form, and the teeth lose, finally, with the 
twentieth year, all regularity. There is nothing remaining in the teeth that can after¬ 
wards clearly show the age of the horse, or justify the most experienced examiner in 
giving a positive opinion. 

The tushes, or canine teeth, conical in shape, with a sharp point, and curved, are 
cut between the third and fourth year, their points become more and more rounded 
until the ninth year, and after that, more and more dull in the course of years, and 
lose, finally, all regular shape. Mares have, frequently, no tusks, or oniy very 
faintly indicated. 

Age of Sheep and Goats. At one year old they have eight front 

teeth of uniform size. At two years the two middle ones are supplanted by two large 
ones. At three a small tooth appears on each side. At four there are six large 
teeth. At five all the front teeth are large, and at six all begin to get worn. 

Age of Cattle. A cow’s horn is supposed to furnish a correct 

indication of the age of the animal, but this is not always true. For ordinary pur¬ 
poses, however, the following will be found approximately correct: At two years of 
age a circle of thicker matter begins to form on the animal’s horns, which becomes 
clearly defined at three years of age, when another'circle begins to form, and an;ad- 
ditional circle every year thereafter. The cow’s age then can be determined by 
adding two to the number of circles. The rings on a bull’s horns do not show them¬ 
selves until he is five years old—so in the case of a bull five must be added to the 
number of rings. Unless the rings are clear and distinct these rules will not apply. 
Besides, dishonest dealers sometimes file off some of the rings of old cattle. ^ [241 



MEDICINES FOR THE HORSE. 


Name of Drug. 


Aloes 

Alum 

Anise Seed 
Aqua Ammonia 
Arsenic 

Asafcetida 
Bicarbonate of ) 
Potash J 

Bismuth 

Black Antimony 

Blue Vitriol 

Calomel 

Camphor 

Cantharides 

Carbolic Acid 

Castor Oil 

Cayenne 

Chlorate of Potash 
Copperas 
Croton Oil 
Digitalis Leaf 
Epsom Salts 
Ether 

Fowler’s Solution 
Gentian Root 

Ginger 

Glauber’s Salts 

Iodide of Potas- } 
sium f 

Linseed Oil, Raw 

Magnesia 

Mercurial Ointm’t 
Nux Vomica 


Ophtm 

Prepared Chalk 
Quinine 

Saltpetre 

Soda Bicarb, 

Soda Sulphite 

Solution of Lime 
Sp’ts of Chlorofor’e 


Action and Use. 

Dose. 

Laxative and Tonic 

y 2 to i oz 

Astringent 

2 to 3 drs 

Aromatic and Stomachic 

y 2 to 2 oz 

Stimulant and Antacid 

i to 4 drs 

( Alterative and Tonic. For \ 

i to 5 grs 

j Paralysis, Mange, etc f 

Anti-spasmodic, Coughs, etc 

i to 3 drs 

j Diuretic and Antacid. ) 

3 to 5 drs 

| For Rheumatism f 

For Chronic Diarrhoea, etc 

N 

o 

H 

o 

■*-» 

Promotes the Secretions 

y to y 2 dr 

Astringent and Tonic 

y 2 to I dr 

Cathartic 

io to 40 grs 

Anti-spasmodic 

y 2 to 1 dr 

Diuretic and Stimulant 

^ to 6 grs 

Externally and Disinfectant 


Cathartic 

y 2 to 1 pt 

Stimulant and Carminative 

5 to 25 grs 

Diuretic. For Bloating, etc 

x / 2 to 2 drs 

Tonic and Astringent 

y 2 to 1 y 2 drs 

Powerful Purgative 

10 to 15 d’ps 

Sedative and Diuretic 

10 to 20 grs 

Cathartic and Febrifuge 

2 to 8 oz 

Anti-spasmodi c 

l / 2 to 2 oz 

Used for Skin Diseases 

1 to 4 drs 

Tonic 

1 to 2 drs 

1 Tonic, Stimulant & Stom- 1 

2 to 5 drs 

< achic. For Flatulent Col- >- 

( ic. Dyspepsia, etc ) 

6 to 12 ozs 

Cathartic 

1 Diuretic and Alterative. ) 


■< For Rheumatism, Dropsy, y 

x / 2 to 1% drs 

( Enlarged Glands, etc ) 


Cathartic and Nutritive 

1 to 2 pts 

(For colts as an Antacid ) 

y to 1 oz 

j and Laxative ) 

j For Mange, Itch, Lice, | 

\ and other Parasites f 

J Nervous Stimulant. For ) 

| Paralysis j 

T 5 to 25 grs 

f Anodyne and Anti-spas- 


J modic. Given in Colic, 1 

y to 1 dr 

| Inflamation of Bowels, j 
( Diarrhoea, etc 

Antacid 

y 2 to i oz 

Tonic. During Convalescence 

15 to 50 grs 

Diuretic and Febrifuge 

1 to 3 drs 

Similar to Bicarb. Potash 

3 to 8 drs 

f Antiseptic and Alterative. ) 

y 2 to 1 oz 

( For Blood Diseases J 

f Antacid, an antidote to ) 

4 to 6 ozs 

(poisoning by acids J 

Anodyne & Anti-spasmodic 


1 to 2 ozs 


Antidote. 


Magnesia and oil 

j Vinegar and raw 
( Linseed Oil 

( Infusion of oak 
< bark. Give also 
f Linseed Oil 


Eggs, soap, gruel 


Stimulate 


j Hydrated Perox- 
) ide of Iron 


Give freely starch 
or flour, with 
water largely 


Whites of eggs 
with milk, freely 
Salaratus, follow- 
e d quickly b y 
copperas, dissolv¬ 
ed in water 
f Belladonna, str’g 
| coffee, brandy & 
-{ ammonia. Dash 
cold water on and 
( keep horse movi’g 


j Linseed oil large- 
( ly, raw 


242 
















MEDICINES FOR THE HORSE.— Continued. 


Namk of Drug. 


Action and Use. 


Dose. 


Antidote. 


Strychnia 

Sulphur 

Sweet Sp’ts Nitre 
Tannic Acid 
Tartar Emetic 

Tin. Aconite Root 

Tin. Cantharides 
Tincture Ergot 
Tincture Iodine 

Tincture Iron 

Tr. Nux Vomica 
Tincture Opium 
White Vitriol 


j Tonic & Stimulant. For 
I Paralysis 

{ Alterative and Laxative. 

Skin diseases, Rheu’tism 
Diuretic and Diaphoretic. 
Astringent 

Sedative and Alterative 


Vi to i gr 

Y2. to 2 oz 

Yt to tY oz 
20 to 40 grs 
Ye to Y dr 


Sedative. For Lung Fever,etc 


15 to 35 d’ps 


Stimulant and Tonic 
Parturient 
Used externally 
j Tonic and Astringent, j 
j For Typhoid Diseases f 
j Tonic. Stimulant in Par- [ 

I alysis and Dyspepsia j 
Anodyne and Anti-spasmodic 
j Astringent. For Wounds ) 
j Cuts & Sores, in solution J 


1 to 2 drs 

1 to 2 oz 

to 1 oz 

2 to 4 drs 
1 to 2 ozs 

5 to 15 grs 


Tobacco 


Tannic Acid 
' Small doses o f 
Nux Vomica, stim¬ 
ulants largely, & 
. keep moving 


See Nux Vomica 
See Opium 
Milk, eggs & flour 


For a colt one month old, give one twenty-fourth of the full dose for an adult 
horse as given above; three months old, one-twelfth; six months old, one-sixth; one 
year old, one-third; two years old, one-half; three years old, three-fourths. 

The Seven Bibles of the World 

Are the Koran of the Mohammedans, the Eddas of the Scandi¬ 
navians, the Try Pitikes of the Buddhists, the Five Kings of the 
Chinese, the Three Vedas of the Hindoos, the Ze davesta, and 
the Scriptures of the Christians. The Koran is the most recent 
of these seven Bibles, and not older than the seventh century of 
our era. It is a compound of quotations from the Old and New 
Testaments, the Talmud, and the Gospel of St. Barnabas. The 
Eddas of the Scandinavians were first published in the fourteenth 
century. The Pitikes of the Buddhists contain sublime morals 
and pure aspirations, and their author lived and died in the sixth 
century before Christ. There is nothing of excellence in these 
sacred books not found in the Bible. The sacred writings of the 
Chinese are called the Five Kings, king meaning web of cloth, 
or the warp that keeps the threads in their place. They contain 
the best sayings of the best sages on the ethico-political duties of 
life. These sayings cannot be traced to a period higher than the 
eleventh century B.C. The Three Vedas are the most ancient 
books of the Hindoos, and it is the opinion of Max Muller, Wil¬ 
son, Johnson, and Whitney that they are not older than eleven 
centuries B.C. The Zendavesta of the Persians is the grandest 
of all the sacred books next to our Bible. Zoroaster, whose say¬ 
ings it contains, was born in the twelfth century B.C. Moses 
lived and wrote his Pentateuch fifteen centuries B.C., and, 
therefore, has a clear margin of 300 years older than the most 
ancient of the sacred writings. 


243 













CANARY BIRDS. 

HOW TO KEEP THEM HEALTHY AND IN GOOD SONG. 

Place the cage so that no draught of air can strike the bird. 
Give nothing to healthy birds but rape, hemp, canary seed, 

water, cuttle-fish bone, and gravel paper or sand on floor of cage. 

A bath three times a week. 

The room should not be overheated. 

When moulting keep warm and avoid all draughts of air. 

Give plenty of German summer rape seed. A little hard 

boiled egg mixed with cracker, grated fine, once or twice a week, is excellent. 

Feed at a certain hour in the morning. 

DISEASES AND CURES. 

Husk or Asthma. The curatives are aperients, such as en¬ 

dive, water cresses, bread and milk and red pepper. 

Pip. Mix red pepper, butter and garlic and swab out the 

throat. 

Sweating. Wash the hen in salt and water, and dry rapidly. 
Cosiiveness. Plenty of green food and fruit. 

Obstruction of the Rump Gland. Pierce with a needle. 

Press the inflamed matter out, and drop fine sugar over the wound. 

Lice. Keep a saucer of fresh water in the cage and the bird 

will free itself. 

Overgrown Claws or Beak. Pare carefully with a sharp 

knife. 

Moulting. Give plenty of good food and keep warm. Saf¬ 

fron and a rusty nail put in their drinking water is excellent. 

Loss of Voice. Feed with paste of bread, lettuce and rape 

seed with yoke of egg. Whisky and sugar is an excellent remedy. 


What a Horse Can Draw. 

On metal rails a horse can draw: 

One and two-thirds times as much as on asphalt pavement. 

Three and one-third times as much as on good Belgian blocks. 

Five times as much as on Ordinary Belgian blocks. 

Seven times as much as on good cobble-stone. 

Thirteen times as much as on ordinary cobble-stone. 

Twenty times as much as on an earth road. 

Forty times as much as on sand. 

A modern compilation of engineering maxims states that a horse can drag, as 
compared with what he can carry on his back, in the following proportions: On 
the worst earthen road, three times more; on a good macadamized road, nine; on 
plank, twenty-five; on a stone trackway, thirty-three; and on a good railway, fifty- 
four times as much. 


Test for Glue. 

The following simple and easy test for glue is given : A weighed 
piece of glue (say one-tliird of an ounce) is suspended in water for 
twenty-four hours, the temperature of which is not above fifty 
degrees Fahrenheit. The coloring material sinks, and the glue swells 
from the absorption of the water. The glue is then taken out and 
weighed; the greater the increase in weight the better the glue. Jf 
it then be dried, perfectly and weighed again, the weight of the color¬ 
ing matter can be learned from the difference between this and the 
original weight. 244 




ALL ABOUT POULTRY-RAISING. 

¥ 


T HE poultry industry of the United States brings in 
more money than all the mines of gold and silver. 
This may seem a wild statement, but it is amply 
borne out by statistics. 

in the United States at the last census there were 
258,871,125 domestic fowls and 26,738,315 geese, ducks and 
turkeys. These produced 819,722,916 dozen eggs, valued 
at $141,550,124. 

With good care a common hen will lay from one hun¬ 
dred to one hundred and twenty eggs a year, but so little 
attention is paid to the poultry of the country that the 
average production falls below fifty eggs a year. 

Well-bred hens with good care produce from one hun¬ 
dred and twenty to two hundred eggs a year. This shows 
the importance of keeping well-bred stock and giving it 
good care. 

Under proper conditions of breeding and care eggs may 
be produced at a cost not to exceed four cents a dozen, 
with corn at thirty-five cents a bushel, oats at twenty-five 
cents and wheat at seventy-five cents. A hen will eat 
the equivalent of five pecks of corn in a year, and this 
amount of food will keep her in good condition. 

There are about one hundred recognized varieties of 
domestic fowls in this country. These are divided into 
ten classes, known as: (1) American; (2) Asiatic; (3) 
Mediterranean; (4) Hamburg; (5) Polish; (6) French; (7) 
English; (8) Games; (9) Bantams; (10) miscellaneous. 

The American class contains those breeds which have 
originated in the United States, such as the Plymouth 
Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques and several newer 
breeds not so well known. 

The Asiatic class has been bred from stock originally 
brought from Asia, among which we find Brahmas, 
Cochins and Langshans. 

The Mediterranean class originated along the shores of 
the sea from which they get their name. But four 
breeds belong to this class, viz.: Leghorns, Minorcas, 
White-faced Black Spanish and Andalusians. 

The Hamburg class contains the varieties formerly 
known as “pheasant fowls” and “Dutch everlasting 
layers,” the Hamburg and the Campines. 

245 


ALL ABOUT POULTRY-RAISING. 


The Polish class did not acquire its name from Poland, 
but from the globular top-knot or crest which surmounts 
the head of members of every variety of the breed. This 
top-knot is called a “ poll ” in England, hence the name 
Polish. _ 

The French class contains three breeds—Houdans, 
Crevecoeur and LaFleche ; the last two are quite rare 
in this country, and the first is not bred extensively. 

The English class has but one breed, the Dorkings. 
Very few of these are to be found in this country, as they 
do not seem to thrive here. 

The Game class contains a number of varieties and two 
distinct types, known as exhibition games and pit games. 
The exhibition games are bred for practical use, the 
same as other breeds of fowls, while the pit games are 
bred for no other purpose than cock-lighting. 

The Bantam class contains many varieties, and these 
are being constantly added to. With but few exceptions 
they are diminutive varieties of the larger breeds. The 
smaller a bantam fowl, the more it is valued. 

There are many varieties of nearly every breed. Thus 
we have barred, white and buff Plymouth Rocks, and the 
barred variety is still further divided into the single¬ 
comb and pea-comb sub-varieties. 

The breeds are still further classed as sitters or non¬ 
sitters. The sitters hatch their own eggs, while the non¬ 
sitters have had the sitting instinct bred out of them to 
such a degree that they rarely sit. 

To the sitters belong the American, Asiatic, English, 
Game and Bantam classes. 

To the non-sitters belong the Mediterranean, Ham¬ 
burg, French and Polish classes. Once in a while a non¬ 
sitter will become broody, but they rarely sit more than 
a few days, when they leave the nest and resume laying. 

The American class is called the general purpose class, 
because all the members of it are fair layers, good table 
fowls and very hardy. 

The Asiatics are poor layers as a rule, but grow to great 
weight and make excellent poultry for market. 

Polish fowls are kept more for their beauty than their 
good qualities. They are only moderate layers, are not 
first-class table fowls and are quite delicate at all ages. 
The heavy crest becomes wet and gives them colds easily, 
and it so covers their eyes that they become easy prey 
for hawks. Without doubt, however, they are the most 
attractive of the domestic fowls, and good specimens find 
ready sale at very remunerative prices. [246] 


ALL ABOUT TO UL TR Y-&A1SING* 

The prospective poultry breeder, knowing the charac¬ 
teristics of the various breeds, is able to choose the one 
which is best adapted to his purpose. 

If he expects to make his profit from the sale of eggs 
he will choose one of the non-sitting breeds. In making 
this choice he will do well to choose one of the Leghorn 
varieties, for several reasons. 

The eggs of Leghorns are as large as those of the 
American or Asiatic class, with the exception of the 
Langshans ; their flesh is yellow and ricli-looking, which 
is a good point when they are sent to market, as the sur¬ 
plus males must be, and the hens when they are too old to 
be kept profitably for the production of eggs. 

The Hamburgs produce quite as many eggs as the Leg¬ 
horns, but their eggs are very small, which is against 
them if a select market is to be sought. The flesh of the 
Hamburgs is either white or dark, according to the 
variety, and is not as attractive on the market as that of 
the yellow-skinned varieties. 

The Minorcas lay larger eggs than any other breed 
known and produce a larger number of them, but they are 
not a first-class market fowl. Next after the Leghorns 
they should be chosen. 

The White-faced Black Spanish fowls were once the 
best layers to be found, but of late have been so closely 
inbred that they have become somewhat delicate. 

Leghorn pullets will begin laying at five months old, 
and if well fed and warmly sheltered will produce from 
one hundred and seventy-five to two hundred eggs per year 
until three and one-half years old, when they should be 
fattened and sold. 

If the sale of young chickens for broilers or roasters is 
the prime object in breeding, then the American class 
should be chosen, and of this class the Plymouth Rocks 
areeasily the leaders. There are probably more Plym- 
mouth Rocks in this country than there are of any three 
other breeds. Their good points are their hardiness and 
the early age at which they get their plumage. Their 
skin is a bright yellow and their bodies are chunky 
and plump-looking, making them the ideal market 
fowl. 

If the breeding of capons is to be the principal object 
in view, the Asiatic breeds are the best, and of these the 
Light Brahmas take the lead. The full-grown cock of 
this variety will attain a weight of twelve pounds, and 
the hen will often weigh above ten pounds. 

247 


HA TCHING CHICKENS WITH HENS. 


For general purposes—for eggs and poultry for market— 
there is no breed that equals the Plymouth Rock. 

Hatching Chickens With Hens. 

Having decided on the breed that is to be kept, the 
beginner will prepare for the hatching season early in 
the spring. The use of incubators and brooders will be 
treated under a separate head, and the best method 
where hens are used to hatch the chicks will be con¬ 
sidered here. 

If one of the non-sitting varieties is to be kept, it will 
be necessary to procure hens of some sitting breed to use 
for hatching. This is usually very easy to do, and broody 
hens can almost always be bought at a reasonable price. 
These hens, after they have served their purpose, may be 
shut up and fattened in a very few days and sold in the 
nearest market. 

It is best to set several hens at a time, and have their 
nests arranged in a room where the remainder of the 
flock cannot get to them. 

If a number of hens are set at one time, when they 
hatch the chicks can be so portioned out that each hen 
will have twelve chicks, and those left without may be 
re-set or turned off. It is rare that a hen hatches all the 
eggs under her—sometimes not more than one, two or 
three. If a number are set at one time it will be seen 
that broods of the same number may be provided without 
having chicks of different ages together. 

For ordinary hens nests should be made in boxes about 
sixteen inches square and twelve inches high, the 
entrance being at the middle of one side. At the bottom 
a three-inch strip should be nailed in front to keep the 
nest material in place. 

In making the nests place in the boxes ordinary garden 
soil two inches deep, hollowing it out to one inch in the 
center, banking the soil so removed around the edges of 
the box so as to form a basin-shaped nest to conform to 
the shape of the body of the hen. Cover this with short 
straw or chaff one inch deep, and the nest is ready for the 
hen and eggs. 

Remove the hen from the nest she has chosen in the 
evening, and shut her in the nest you have made, giving 
her a nest-egg or one or two common eggs to sit on, and 
leave her there until about dark of the next day. Then 
gently remove her from the nest and put in the eggs you 
want hatched, and shut the hen on the nest again. 

248 


THE CARE OF CHICKS. 


During 1 the twenty-one days of incubation remove the 
hens at noon every day and feed them all the whole grain 
they will eat and place water where they can drink their 
fill. Have in the room a shallow box filled with dust or 
sifted coal-ashes, to allow them to take a dust-bath if 
they wish. 

After they have been off the nest thirty minutes, if the 
weather is cool, or longer if it is warm, open the nests 
and allow them to return to them, then shut them on 
again for another twenty-four hours. 

If this is regularly repeated the hens soon learn to sit 
quietly and the hatch is much better. 

After the eighteenth day do not force the hens to leave 
their nests, as they often sit very closely during the last 
three days, nature teaching them that it is better to do so. 

The Care of Chicks. 

Young chicks should be kept warm and dry. They 
should be fed a little at a time and often. The aim 
should be to keep them with a good appetite but never 
let them become ravenously hungry. 

For the first week feed them stale bread soaked in milk, 
rolled oats or corn-bread. 

Do not feed young chicks corn-meal dough. They may 
live on it, but it is not the best food for them. 

Keep the hen confined in a coop until the chicks are 
three weeks old, after which she may be allowed her free¬ 
dom every sunny day after the dew has dried off in the 
morning. 



After the chicks are a week old they may be given 
cracked corn, wheat, millet seed or any other small^ or 
broken grain, and if they cannot have a grassy run, onion 
tops, chopped, or tender leaves of lettuce, may be given 
them. 


249 




























POULTRY //OUSTS. 


A good, coop for a hen and chicks is shown in the illus¬ 
tration, If older fowls can get to the younger ones, a 
latticed pen similiar to the one shown in the cut, but of 
larger size, may be used in which to feed all the chicks 
kept. The feed may be thrown inside, and one side 
raised on blocks sufficiently high to let the chicks in, the 
size of the block being increased as the chicks grow. 
Wire-netting made especially for poultry yards is very 
cheap, and may be used in the place of lumber in making 
these feeding pens. 

Poultry Houses. 

Poultry houses may be made very costly or they may be 
made of the simplest materials in the cheapest manner 
and answer every purpose required of them. 

The only absolutely necessary requirements are warmth, 
dryness and light. For all practical purposes a sod house 
or one covered with straw is as good as one costing 
hundreds of dollars. 

Every poultry house should be made so as to exclude 
draughts, which are a prolific cause of diseases in the 
nature of colds. 

A house made of common barn lumber, with a large 
window in the south side and all the cracks tightly bat¬ 
tened, is usually sufficiently warm in the coldest weather 
to prevent the fowls from suffering from cold. 

In many poultry houses no glass is used in the windows, 
heavy muslin sheeting being substituted. The muslin 
allows the light and heat of the sun to enter the house 
during the day, and does not allow it to radiate into space 
as glass does. Muslin is much cheaper than glass, and 
is not liable to damage from the fowls flying against it. 

The nest boxes and perches should be so arranged that 
they can be taken out without trouble -when the house is 
cleaned. 

Lice on poultry causes more trouble than all other 
things put together. The poultryman must keep them in 
subjection or his profits will fade away. 

Whitewash is the great purifier of the poultry house, 
and the inside should have at least three good coats each 
summer. It cannot be put on too thickly. If applied 
plentifully it reaches all the cracks in the walls, kills the 
lice and destroys the eggs that may be in them. 

Once in two weeks the nest-boxes and perches should be 
scalded with boiling water and kerosene oil poured over 
them. If this is done no lice will ever trouble the fowls. 

250 


POULTRY HOUSES. 


All poultry does better if given full liberty, but with 
proper care two hundred hens may be kept on one acre 
and do well. They should be divided into four lots, and 
kept in separate pens when so many are kept in a small 
space. 

The best single grain for laying hens is wheat; then 
follow oats, sorghum-seed, corn, etc. 

Laying hens should never be confined to a single kind 
of food. Give as great a variety of grain as possible, 
together with potatoes, turnips, beets and carrots 
chopped up raw. During the summer, if they have their 
liberty, they will get enough green food in the grass they 
eat, but in the winter and when confined they should have 
green food furnished them. 

Lime in some form must be given hens, as they require 
this food for the formation of the shells of their eggs. 
This may be in the form of crushed or cut bones, oyster 
shells, sea shells, or, if nothing else can be got, old 
mortar. Never give unslaked lime to fowls. 

Meat of some kind is also necessary. If the hens cannot 
get out to hunt worms and insects they should be given 
flesh food in some other form. Butchers’ bones, cut by 
machines made for this purpose, are best, as they contain 
both meat and lime. Next come meat-scraps of any kind, 
and., failing these, dried and ground meat, which is for 
sale in poultry supply houses, may be substituted. 

Hens that are fed enough to get fat will not lay well. 
They should never be given more than they will eat up 
clean at one time. 

Hens must have exercise to keep in good health. If 
they are confined induce them to exercise themselves by 
putting straw in the pens and throwing the grain fed 
them among this, making them scratch to find it. 

An occasional feed of corn parched until it is black is 
good for laying hens. 

If the eggs are not to be used for hatching, the hens 
will lay more eggs and the eggs will keep fresh longer if 
there are no males in the flock. This has been proved by 
careful and repeated experiments. 

Do not inbreed your fowls, as they will soon become 
delicate and unproductive under this course. Introduce 
males of strange blood every year, and the stock will 
improve in vigor and prolificacy. 

If the fowls begin to show symptoms of scaly-leg grease 
the legs with lard, rubbing it well under the scales, and 
the trouble will soon disappear. Do not do this during 

251 


PRESERVING EGGS . 


the hatching season, as the grease will destroy the vitality 
of the eggs. 

Preserving Eggs. 

The recipes given below have been sold all over the 
country at from one to five dollars each. Thousands of 
the first were sold by the inventor at two dollars each, 
and one man is still selling the “Havana” methods by 
hundreds at fifty cents a copy. 

The Sulphur Process —The best of all preservatives 
is sulphur, but as it will not dissolve in water, we must 
convert it into gas by mixing it with oxygen, forming 
what is known as sulphurous acid (not sulphuric acid) gas, 
which is done by burning it. To preserve eggs, place 
them in a tight box with a sliding lid, such as starch 
commonly comes in. Place a tablespoonful of sulphur on 
an oyster shell or other suitable receptacle and set it on 
fire. As soon as it begins to burn, close the lid tightly 
and leave it for half an hour. Now take out the eggs and 
pack them in perfectly dry oats in a box or barrel, filling 
it full enough that when closed it may be turned over 
without any change in the position of the eggs, and once 
a week turn the box over. If the oats have also been 
treated with sulphur it will be better. Eggs treated as 
above directed and kept in a cool place will remain fresh 
for months. 

The “Havana” Method.—B y this method millions of 
dozens of eggs have been preserved for months and sold 
as fresh eggs at the end of that time. Where cold-storage 
warehouses are not within reach it is still extensively 
used by those in the secret. 

Take twenty-four gallons of water and put in it twelve 
pounds of unslaked lime and four pounds of salt. Stir it 
well several times a day, and then let it stand until per¬ 
fectly clear. Then draw off twenty gallons of the clear 
lime and salt water. Then take five ounces each of 
baking soda, cream tartar, saltpeter and borax, and one 
ounce of alum. Pulverize these and dissolve in one gallon 
of boiling water, which should be poured into the twenty 
gallons of lime and salt water. This will fill a whisky 
barrel half full, and the barrel holds about one hundred 
and fifty dozen eggs. Let the water stand one inch above 
the eggs. Put a cloth over the eggs and pour the settlings 
of lime over it. Do not let the cloth hang over the edges 
of the barrel. If the water evaporates add more, as the 
eggs must be kept covered with the preserving fluid. 

252 


INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. 


If a smaller number of eggs are to be preserved less of 
the fluid may be prepared, using the materials in the 
same proportion. 

After a great deal of experience these two methods of 
preserving eggs have been found to be the best, and 
either of them is worth many dollars to any one who will 
make use of them. 

How to Operate Incubators and Brooders. 

Artificial incubation has developed very rapidly within 
a few years, and incubators and brooders have come into 
use in very large numbers. 

The art of hatching poultry by artificial heat is as old 
as civilization almost, and has been practiced in a crude 
way for centuries. It is only recently, however, that a 
practical incubator or brooder could be found on the 
market. Now there are a large number of different 
makes, among which it is hard to choose. 

To succeed with an incubator the operator must care¬ 
fully acquaint himself with the best method, and attend 
to all the details promptly. 

The following is the result of an experience of twelve 
years in the use of incubators and brooders, and is believed 
to cover every point fully. If the directions given are 
followed success is assured: 

The Incubator. 

1. Perfectly fresh eggs only should be used, none being 
over a w T eek old. 

2. After the incubator is set up it should be thoroughly 
studied so the operator may understand its workings. 

3. Place the incubator, if possible, in a room where the 
sun does not shine. If such a room is not to be had, put 
it in one where no fire is kept or where the temperature 
does not vary more than 20 ° in twenty-four hours. 

4. A dry cellar is a good place, but be very certain it 
is dry and perfectly ventilated. If vegetables are kept 
in the cellar, it is best not to use it for an incubator-room. 

5. If the incubator must be placed in a room which the 
sun shines into, place it where the sun will not strike it. 

0. After the incubator is placed in position, fill and 
light the lamp, and, beginning with a low flame, gradually 
increase it until the temperature reaches 103° in the 
egg-drawer, with the bulb of the thermometer two inches 
above the bottom of the drawer. 

7. Be very sure that your thermometer is correctly 

253 


INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. 


marked. If it is not, failure is almost certain. Not one 
in a hundred of the cheap thermometers is correct. 

8. After the proper temperature has been reached 
detach the regulating - mechanism and keep the tempera¬ 
ture as near 103° as possible for a day or two. This will 
show about the size of flame that is necessary to keep 
the proper temperature, and makes regulating much 
easier. 

9. The best regulator made regulates only through a 
narrow range of temperature, and it is possible with any 
machine to force the temperature too high or keep it 
too low. 

10. When the temperature is at 103° and the regu¬ 
lator is working as it should, put the eggs in the egg- 
drawer and shut the door. The temperature will fall at 
once from the cooling effect of the eggs, but it will rise 
again in a few hours, and the regulator should not be 
interfered with. 

11. At this stage observe carefully how the regulator 
works and keep the temperature as near 103 ° as possible. 

12. Do not touch the eggs nor open the egg-chamber 
until the third day, unless some accident makes it 
necessary to do so. 

13. All incubators have an egg-turning device, but not 
all of them work perfectly. It is best to turn the eggs by 
hand, as it is better for them to be cooled down each day, 
and w r hen the turning is done by hand they cool about as 
they should. 

14. Do not handle the eggs with the bare hand, unless 
it has been washed in soap and w r ater. It is best to keep 
a cotton glove handy to use w 7 hile turning the eggs. 

15. Beginning with the third day, turn the eggs every 
day until the nineteenth, after w’hich they should not be 
touched. 

16. If the temperature runs too high or too low the 
flame of the lamp is not the proper size. Decrease or 
increase the size a very little at a time until the tem¬ 
perature remains steady. 

17. If from any cause the temperature gets up to 104° 
or above, open the egg-chamber and allow 7 the eggs to 
cool down. 

18. If the temperature runs dow 7 n to as low 7 as 90° no 
harm w 7 ill be done except to delay the hatch a little, 
unless it has been dowm several hours. 

19. Make it an invariable rule to fill the lamp and trim 
the w 7 ick every morning, no matter how r much oil the 

254 


IN CUB A TORS AND BROODERS. 


lamp holds. A wick that has been burning - a day will get 
a coal on it that will cause the flame to run down, and if 
it is trimmed in the morning the run of the temperature 
may be watched during the day and be adjusted before 
night. 

20. The operator will soon learn to determine the tem¬ 
perature by putting his hand into the egg-chamber, and 
can tell in the dark whether it is right or not. 

21. Moisture should not be put into the egg-drawer 
until the tenth day, and then only a little. On the 
fifteenth day put in more moisture and increase it until 
the eighteenth day, after which the egg-chamber should 
not be opened unless absolutely necessary. 

22. Whenever the eggs begin to show breaks or pips 
from the chicks inside, shut the machine and do not open 
it again until the hatch is completed. 

23. Too much moisture causes the chick to grow too 
large, and it is unable to get out of the shell and dies. 

24. If the egg-chamber is opened while the hatch is 
going on, the moisture in it at once becomes cold and 
chills the chicks so they die in the shells. A slight fall 
in temperature at this time is often fatal. 

25. Never on any account sprinkle the eggs or spray 
them. The evaporation when this is done is fatal. 

2(5. After the fifteenth day the vital heat of the chicks 
helps to keep the egg-chamber warm, and in warm 
weather it is often necessary to extinguish the lamp alto¬ 
gether during the warmest part of the day. This point 
should be remembered and the temperature watched. 

27. The little chicks often pant and struggle as if 
panting for breath when first hatched. Do not open the 
egg-chamber to give them air, as they are getting 
strength from their struggles, and do not need more air 
than they can get with the egg-chamber closed. 

28. Do not open the incubator more than is necessary, 
and never to accommodate a friend who wants to see how 
it works. More hatches are spoiled by bothering with 
the incubator than in any other way. 

The Brooder. 

29. When the chicks are first put into the brooder keep 
the temperature at 100° for twenty-four hours, and then 
let it fall to 90° , where it should remain for a week. 

30. After the first week the temperature may Jbe 
allowed to run down very gradually until it stands at 65° 
three weeks from the time the chicks were put in. 


CAPOJVS AND CAPONIZING. 


31. If the brooder is one of the in-door kind keep it in 
a well ventilated room. 

32. If it is an out-door brooder place it where cold 
winds will not strike it directly. 

33. Never feed the chicks in the brood-chamber. 

34. Clean the brood-chamber at least three times a 
week, and open it to the sun as often as possible. 

35. As soon as the presence of lice in a brooder is 
detected open it and scald it with boiling water. Never 
use benzine or gasoline about a brooder. 

36. Chicks should remain in the brooder until they 
grow large enough to crowd it, when they may be put in 
warm, dry coops for a few weeks. 

37. Brooders are much easier to operate than incu¬ 
bators, and may be used with success in rearing chicks 
hatched by hens. 

38. Brooder-reared chicks grow faster than those 
allowed to run with a hen; they mature earlier and are 
never troubled with gapes. 

39. It is less trouble to take care of a hundred chicks 
in a brooder than it is to care for two hens with a dozen 
chicks each. 

40. Not more than fifty chicks should be put in one 
division of a brooder, no matter how many the maker 
claims they will hold. 

Capons and Caponizing. 

The raising of capons is becoming every year of more 
importance as the demand for them increases. Until 
very lately the Western cities were not the best markets 
for capons, but lately the people of the West have become 
educated on the subject and capons bring prices nearer 
those of Eastern cities. 

Capons are as much superior to ordinary fowls as the 
beef of a young and well-fatted steer is superior to that 
of a Texas bull. 

A capon is a castrated cock, the operation being per¬ 
formed when the bird is about four months old, special 
tools being used, as the testicles must be taken out 
through an incision in the side. 

These tools may be bought of any poultry supply house 
or a place where they are on sale may be found by 
inquiring of any publisher of a poultr}'' or farm paper. 
The tools are quite inexpensive, a complete set being sold 
for $2. With every set are sent plain directions, and any 
one with any skill at all can soon learn to use them suc¬ 
cessfully. 256 


CAPONS AND CAPONIZING. 


The best breeds for capons are the larger ones, 
Brahmas, Cochins and Plymouth Rocks being the favor¬ 
ites. If capons are to be made of common stock the hens 
should be mated with a very large cock of some Asiatic 
breed, Light Brahma, Buff or White Cochin preferably. 

After a cockerel is caponized his comb ceases to grow 
and soon withers away until it is very small, his head 
takes on the appearance of a hen’s, and he develops a 
great growth of bone and flesh. 

A capon is always very quiet and lazy and does not run 
his flesh off by taking unnecessary exercise. 

Capons should be fed on flesh-forming rather than fat¬ 
forming food until they are to be fitted for market. They 
may be kept in a very small pen, as they do not require 
as much exercise as ordinary fowls. 

They may be allowed their liberty until winter, when a 
hundred may be kept in a house 15x20 feet square, to 
which is attached a yard 20x30 feet. 

Capons are usually sold in February, March and April, 
at which time they should be about a year old, and good 
Plymouth Rock capons should average at least ten pounds 
each at that age. 

The price is rarely below 15 cents a pound and is often 
as high as 40, the average being about 20 cents a pound. 
The early shipments usually bring the best prices; so 
chickens that are to be caponized must be hatched early 
if high prices are to be got. 

It is not at all uncommon for a flock of capons to return 
to their owner a profit of $1 each after taking out the 
cost of feed and carriage to market. 

One woman in Illinois raised over 400 in one year and 
sold them at a price that netted her over $500. 

Capon-raising is only in its infancy, and the market has 
never yet been over-supplied. People who eat capon once 
always want more, and thus the demand constantly 
increases. 

c 4 

Early and Late Planted Potatoes .—Recent experiments 
have shown that early varieties of potatoes, planted as 
late as the first of June, returned a better yield than late 
varieties planted early in the season. In a series of 
experiments the lowest yield from the late planted early 
varieties was greater than the largest yield from early 
planted late varieties. The land was the same and the 
cultivation as good in one case as in the other. 

257 


300 FACTS ABOUT POULTRY. 

Characteristics of the Various Breeds Concisely Stated, 


o 

Z 

Races. 

Weight of Chick, one 
day old. 

1 

Daily Increase of the 

Weight of Chick 

during 20 days. 

Annual Laying. 

Weight of Eggs. 

Quantity of Food 

Daily. 

Average Weight of 

Flesh at 6 months. 

Average Weight of 

Bone. 



oz. 

OZ. 

E’gs 

oz. 

OZ. 

lbs. oz. 

OZ. 

dr. 

1 

Crevecoeur. 

1 9-16 

5-16 

122 

2 3-4 

7 

4 10 

7 

15 

2 

Houdan. 

1 3-8 

11-32 

125 

2 3-16 

6 13-16 

3 15 

7 

0% 

3 

La Bresse, black.... 

1 7-16 

1-4 

160 

2 13-16 

6 13-16 

3 8 

5 

iU 

4 

La Bresse, gray. 

1 5-16 

1-4 

150 

1 7-8 

5 1-4 

3 7 

5 

1 :% 

5 

Barbezieux. 

1 10-16 

5-16 

140 

2 7-16 

6 10-16 

4 11 

8 

7 y 2 

6 

La I 1 leche. 

1 1-2 

7-32 

140 

2 7-16 

6 13-16 

3 6 

6 

5 l A 

7 

Le Mans. 

1 10-16 

5-16 

111 

2 1-4 

6 14-16 

4 5 

7 

12 

8 

Gournay. 

1 3-16 

3-16 

140 

2 7-16 

4 11-16 

2 10 

4 

9 

9 

Courtes Pattes. 

1 1-4 

3-16 

150 

2 3-16 

6 10-16 

3 10 

5 

7 y* 

10 

Andalusian. 

1 5-16 

1-4 

165 

2 7-16 

6 12-16 

3 1 

5 

13 

11 

Brahma. 

1 5-8 

7-32 

120 

2 1-4 

9 1-2 

4 11 

10 

15 

12 

Campine, silver span- 










gled. 

1 1-16 

3-16 

225 

1 11-16 

5 1-2 

2 3 

4 

3% 

13 

Cochin, cinnamon... 

1 13-16 

3-16 

115 

2 1-16 

10 1-2 

4 9 

14 

m 

14 

Game . 

1 5-16 

7-32 

100 

2 7-16 

5 1-4 

3 10 

4 

6 l A 

15 

Cosaque. 

1 3-16 

1-4 

120 

2 3-16 

4 1-4 

2 15 

4 

15 

16 

Dominique. 

1 1-4 

7-32 

110 

2 7-32 

4 3-4 

3 11 

5 

5% 

17 

Dorking. 

1 7-16 

11-32 

130 

1 15-16 

6 13-16 

5 4 

7 

6A 

18 

Spanish. 

1 5-16 

7-32 

160 

2 3-4 

6 13-16 

3 1 

9 

8% 

19 

Hamburg, silver 










spangled. 

1 2-16 

7-32 

239 

1 11 16 

5 1-4 

2 3A 

4 

6 A 

20 

Dutch, black . 

1 1-16 

2-16 

98 

2 

5 1-2 

2 3 

4 

9 

21 

Langshan. 

1 5-8 

5-16 

115 

2 3-16 

7 

5 4 

10 

io l A 

22 

Leghorn, silver 










spangled. 

114 

1-4 

190 

2 7-32 

6 

3 15 

7 

0% 

23 

Polands, golden 










spangled. 

1 3-16 

3-16 

100 

2 1-16 

4 

2 13 

4 

12 

24 

Scotch Grey. 

1 1-4 

7-32 

110 

2 7-32 

6 13-16 

3 i l A 

4 

15 

25 

Bantam, silver span- 










eled. 

9-16 


CO 

1 1-8 

2 7 8 




26 

Game Bantam. 

7-16 


qn 

1 1-32 

2 8 4 



27 

Narasaki. 

1-2 



1 3-32 

3 1-8 



28 

Silkies... 

3-4 


98 

1 1-4 

3 9-16 








Below are given soil and climate best adapted for 
the various breeds, rate of development, quality of 
flesh, etc., etc. The numbers in first column of 
preceding table refer to further description and char- 
acteristics of same breeds in paragraphs following: 
i i. Grass soil, mild climate, fears fog, develops rapidly and fattens 

__ ’easily, does not set, flesh exquisite white and delicate. 

2 . Calcareous soil, any climate, very rapid development, incubation nil, flesh 
delicate. 258 




































































FACTS ABOUT POULTRT. 

3. Grass, hardy in all climates, fattens quickly, good sitters, does not steal nest, 
flesh exquisite. 

4. Any climate, fattens quickly, incubation nil, flesh very good. 

5 . Mild climate, dry soil, development slow, incubation good, flesh delicate. 

6 . Mild climate, dry soil, development slow, fattens easily, incubation nil, flesh 
very delicate. 

7 . Dry soil, any climate, rapid development, incuba'.e rarely, delicate flesh. 

8 . Grass soil, any climate, pretty rapid development, incubate rarely, flesh good. 

9 . Dry soil, hardy in all climates, development middling, incubation good but 
late, good flesh. 

10 . Dry soil and warm climate, development middling, incubation nil, flesh del¬ 
icate. 

ix. Hardy, dry soil, any climate, development slow, incubation excellent, good 
mothers, flesh fair. 

12 . Hardy race, any climate, require much space, development middling, incu¬ 
bation nil, flesh good. 

13 . Hardy in any climate, develop very slowly, incubation excellent, good 
mothers but heavy, flesh stringy. 

14 . Hardy in any climate, development rapid, incubation capital, good mothers, 
flesh excellent. 

15 . Very hardy race in any climate, development rapid, incubation nil, flesh deli¬ 
cate. 

16 . Hardy in any climate, development middling, incubation very good, excel¬ 
lent mothers, flesh good. 

17 . Grass soil and mild climate, develop very rapidly, incubate well, very good 
mothers, flesh very delicate and juicy. 

18 . Delicate race, sandy soil and warm climate, develop slowly, long time 
feathering, incubation rare, flesh delicate. 

19 . Any soil or climate, development middling, incubation very rare, flesh deli¬ 
cate. 

20 . Delicate breed, require grass soil, development middling, incubation nil, 
flesh pretty good. 

21 . Very hardy in any climate, develop rapidly, incubation good, most excellent 
mothers, flesh excellent. 

22 . Very hardy in any climate, develop rapidly, incubate very rarely, flesh indif¬ 
ferent. 

23 . Delicate race, fear damp, development not very rapid, incubation rare, flesh 
delicate. 

24 . Delicate race, grass soil, development middling, incubation nil, flesh good. 

25 . Very delicate breed, dry soil, development middling, incubation pretty good. 

26 . Delicate, dry soil, development middling, incubation good—must not be dis¬ 
turbed. 

27 . Sandy soil, development middling, incubation indifferent, flesh good. 

28 . Very hardy race in any climate, develop rapidly, excellent incubation, flesh 
very bad. 


The “ Poor Man’s Region,” in the Pine Barrens of the 

Southern States, is a belt of country more than seventeen hundred miles long and 
often one hundred and seventy miles broad, stretching from Richmond, Va., along 
the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, to beyond the western line of Louisiana. The soil is 
sandy and the principal tree is the long-leaf pine. These forests, while affording a 
valuable article of lumber, also yield pitch, tar and turpentine. 

The first proposer of secession in the United States Congress 
wasjosiah Quincy, of Massachusetts, in 1811 , who said that, if Louisiana were ad¬ 
mitted into the Union, "it will be the right of all and the duty of some [of the States] 
definitely to prepare for a separation—amicably if they can, violently if they must.” 
Mr. Poindexter, of Mississippi, called him to order as did the Speaker of the House; 
but on appeal the Speaker’s decision was reversed, and Mr. Quincy sustained by a 
vote of fifty-three ayes to fifty-six noes, on the point of order. 

259 



DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS. 


Breeds . 

Live 

weight 

in 

pounds. 

Live 
weight 
of Hen 

Age at 
maturi¬ 
ty, mos. 

Cost of 
raising 
to ma¬ 
turity. 

Annual 
cost of 
keepi’g. 

Av. val. 
of eggs 
laid per 
year. 

Ducks, common. 

3 

3 

6 

75 

1.00 

90 

Ducks, Aylesbury. 

7 

6 

18 

1.00 

1.00 

80 

Ducks, Cayuga. 

6 

b l A 

15 

90 

1.00 

1.00 

Ducks, Pekin. 

6 


18 

1.10 

1.00 

75 

Ducks, Rouen. 

7'A 


24 

1.10 

1.00 

80 

Geese, common. 

8 

7 

12 

1.25 

1.50 

20 

Geese, African. 

2U 

18 

24 

1.75 

2-00 

30 

Geese, Egyptian. 

7 

6 

12 

1.00 

1.50 

40 

Geese, Embden. 

18 

15 

30 

1.75 

2.00 

20 

Geese, Toulouse. 

22 

20 

36 

2.00 

2.00 

40 

Turkeys, common. 

12 

10 

12 

1.20 

1.50 

50 

Turkeys, black. 

15 

12 

18 

1.75 

1.75 

50 

Turkeys, bronze. 

24 

15 

36 

2.00 

2.00 

50 

Turkeys, buff. 

15 

12 

24 

1.75 

1.50 

50 

Turkeys, Narragansetts .... 

22 

14 

39 

1.75 

1.75 

50 


The annual supply of eggs in the United States is estimated at over 500 , 000 ,- 
000 dozen, and, at the low price of sixteen cents per dozen, represents a value of 
over $ 80 , 000,000 —double the value of the product of our silver mines. 


Fate of the Apostles. 

The following brief history of the fate of the Apostles may be 
new to those whose reading has not been evangelical : 

St. Matthew is supposed to have suffered martyrdom or was 
slain with the sword at the city of Ethiopia. 

St. Mark was dragged through the streets of Alexandria, in 
Egypt, till he expired. 

St. Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in Greece. 

St. John was put into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome and 
escaped death. He afterward died a natural death at Ephesus 
in Asia. 

St. James the Great was beheaded at Jerusalem. 

St. James the Less was thrown from a pinnacle or wing of the 
temple and then beaten to death with a fuller’s club. 

St. Philip was hanged up against a pillar at Hieropolis, a city 
of Phrygia. 

St. Bartholomew was flayed alive by the command of a bar¬ 
barous king. 

St. Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached unto 
the people till he expired. 

St. Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Caro- 
mandel, in the East Indies. 

St. Jude was shot to death with arrows. 

St. Simon Zealot was crucified in Persia. 

St. Matthias was first stoned and then beheaded. 

St. Barnabas was stoned to death by Jews at Salania. 

St. Paul was beheaded at Rome by the tyrant Nero. 

260 


































SHEEP-BREEDING FOR PROFIT. 

¥ 


One Hundred and Twenty-six Good Points for Shepherds. 


T HE breeding - of sheep is one of the most profitable 
branches of farming, and should not be neglected. 
The following rules have been prepared from the 
combined experience of some of the best breeders in the 
country. They have been compiled with a view to showing 
in the fewest words the advantages of sheep to the farm, 
how to make them most profitable and how to keep them 
in good condition: 

ADVANTAGES OF KEEPING SHEEP. 

1. They are profitable. Instances are given where 
breeding ewes have yielded a profit of $12.60 per head; 
where fat lambs, made to weigh 115 pounds at nine months 
of age, have sold for six cents per pound; where a 
breeding ewe has given annually a profit of $10 to $15; 
where a farm was bought for $3,000, with $1,000 down and 
the rest to be paid in two years, and during that time the 
sheep paid $1,500 and the original number remained; 
where they have made land worth $60 an acre that was 
before worth $25. 

2. They weaken the soil least and strengthen it most. 

3. They are enemies of weeds. 

4. The care they need is required when other farm 
operations are slack. 

5. The amount of investment need not be large. 

6. The returns are quick and many. 

7. They are the quietest and most easily handled of all 
farm stock. 

8. Other farm products are made more largely from 
cash grains, while wool and mutton are made principally 
from pasture. 

9. There is no other product of the farm that has 
fluctuated so slightly in value as good mutton. 

10. By comparison wool costs nothing, for do not the 
horse and cow, in shedding their coats, waste what the 
sheep saves ? 

11. Study your farm conditions so as to be able to 
select sheep suitable for your locality. 

12. There is no breed suitable for all conditions. 

13. There are so many varieties that it is easy to 
choose sheep adapted for any locality. 

261 


SITEEP-BREEDING FOR PROFIT. 


RULES FOR BREEDERS. 

14. Above all thing's use a pure-bred ram. 

15. It is possible to begin with grade American Merinos 
and by consecutive crossing with Shropshires or Oxfords 
get good mutton sheep. 

16. A source of failure in crossing the Merino with 
mutton sheep has been that the shepherd used to Merinos 
did not feed the crosses sufficient. 

17. Before beginning to select a flock of ewes one should 
have a distinct type in mind and pick carefully to this 
type. 

18. Field rams always give the farmer the best results 
in produce. 

19. Avoid the use of highly fitted, stable-fed show rams. 

20. Select the rams carefully; continue to grade 
towards a better type; cull out those deficient, and the 
flock will respond promptly to the effort. 

21. A big, coarse-boned ewe with a strong head and 
thick neck is not the right sort to raise a good, vigorous 
lamb and suckle it properly for two months. 

22. The ewe of right type should be medium-sized, 
weighing, in moderate flesh, 150 pounds at least, as a 
yearling. 

23. In buying sheep keep the most profitable type in 
view; pick to that as closely as possible ; take the best 
and leave the culls. 

24. The demand of to-day is for a sheep that may be 
made ready for market any time before it becomes tv r elve 
months old. 

25. Before you can tend your sheep well you must make 
a study of them. 

26. In dividing the flock pay attention to age, size and 
condition. 

27. The ewes should be in fleshy condition in the fall. 
Feed one-half pound oats daily until they become so. 

28. A grain-fed flock will yield two pounds per head 
more wool than one poorly fed. 

29. All ewes with unsound mouths, injured udders and 
bad coats should be fed for market. 

30. Select those ewes to remain in the flock that have 
been the most prolific and the best milkers. 

31. Breed your ewes to a pure-bred male of the same 
breed, so that each year the increase will be better than 
the year before. 

32. Ewe lambs should not be bred until they are 
eighteen months old. 


262 


RULES FOR BREEDERS. 


33. A good daily ration for a breeding ewe is two 
pounds of clover hay or corn fodder, three pounds of 
silage or roots, and one-quarter pound of oats in early 
winter, changed to one-quarter of a pound of bran in the 
spring. 

34. Supply ewes with salt and clean drinking water at 
all times. 

35. Do not keep more than fifty ewes in a single pen. 

36. Breeding ewes should have exercise and should not 
be confined in warm, close buildings. 

37. Before being put on pasture the ewes should be 
tagged. 

38. When the flock is turned out in the spring, after 
having a roof over them and protection from winter 
showers, it is important that they be not exposed to any 
rough weather. 

39. They should not be permitted to depend solely on 
the soft, washy grasses of early spring. 

40. There should be no decrease in the quantity of hay 
and grain fed to the ewes until they have been on pasture 
for some time. 

41. The thrift of the ewes and lambs depends on change 
of pasture in summer. 

42. It does not do to wait until your flock is failing 
before changing their pasture to make them improve 
again. 

43. Pastures containing a mixture of grasses and 
clovers keep the sheep in the best thrift. 

44. It is a good plan to change the sheep from one 
pasture to another every week or ten days. 

45. Oats and tares mixed make a good supplement for 
the pasture. 

46. Give the flock, including the lambs, the aftermath 
of timothy and clover. 

47. The best satisfaction will be obtained from clover 
as a sheep food by cutting when it reaches full bloom, 
putting it in cocks, leaving it to sweat a short while, then 
airing it and putting it in the barn quite green. 

48. A ton of clover put up in the right way will come 
out green, and it is worth two, in some instances three 
tons put up so that it comes out in bad condition. 

49. Clover is a benefit to the farm and a good food for 
the flock. 

50. Give the breeding ewes succulent food of some kind 

during the winter and thus avoid seeing many of them 
humped up, with a pinched look, suffering with colic, 
which is commonly called the stretches. [263] 


RULES FOR BREEDERS. 


51. A lamb dropped in March will outstrip the later 
lambs during' the hot weather of August and September. 

52. Keep a service record so that 3 r ou will know when 
the lambs will be dropped. 

53. Provide lambing pens for comfort of ewes and 
safety of lambs. 

54. Be on hand at lambing time to see that each lamb 
is on its feet and feeding. 

55. - Teach the lambs to eat a mixture of two parts bran 
and one part oil-meal (by weight) as early as possible. 

56. Arrange a lamb-creep and trough for the lambs. 

57. The lambs should be castrated when from three to 
four weeks old, and docked a few days later. 

58. About two weeks after the ewes have been shorn 
dip the lambs. 

59. Wean the lambs when three and a half to four 
months old. 

60. Clover aftermath is the best pasture for lambs that 
have been weaned. 

61. Early maturity and profit in feeding are so closely 
associated that every feeder realizes the necessity of 
securing the former to obtain the latter. 

62. Lambs fed grain before weaning made an average 
weekly gain during ten weeks of 4.48 pounds per head; 
those fed no grain gained in the same time 3.6 pounds per 
head weekly. The cost of the gain amounted to 18 cents 
per head. If sold at the time of weaning the lambs that 
received grain would have yielded a profit of 72 cents 
more per head than the others. 

63. In the nineteen weeks intervening between the 
time of weaning and before fattening, the lambs receiving 
grain made an avefage weekly gain of 2.69, while those 
not receiving grain made a weekly gain of 1.57 pounds 
per head. The grain cost $1.47 per head The difference 
in the market value if sold at the end of the period would 
have been $2.09 per head in favor of the grain-fed lambs. 

64. The fact that the lambs had or had not received 
grain previous to the fattening did not have any appreci¬ 
able effect on the rate of increase during the fattening 
period which followed. 

65. The lambs that received grain previous to the time 
of fattening sheared heavier and the fibres of the fleece 
were longer. 

66. The greatest and most profitable gain is made by 
the lamb before it is weaned. 

67. It is found specially beneficial to feed grain to 

lambs when they are being weaned. [264] 


RAPE AS A SHEEP FEED. 

68. The two leading directions connected with feeding 
sheep during the fattening process are to know the appe¬ 
tites of the sheep and to satisfy them to the fullest 
extent. 

69. When two weeks old the lambs will begin to eat 
grain, and by the time it is proper to wean them they will 
eat one-half to three-quarters of a pound per head per 
day, and on this and good pasture they will make an 
average gain of from three to four and one-half pounds 
per week. 

70. After weaning about one-half pound of oats should 
be fed and increased gradually until fattening begins. 
With common pasture and this ration two and one-half 
pounds per head per week is fair gain. 

71. Wethers in hearty condition will eat about one and 
one-half pounds of roots or silage, and when on full ration 
two pounds of grain mixture per head daily, and on this 
they will average two and three-quarter pounds per head 
in weekly gain. 

72 Be sure and have the wethers free from ticks 
before beginning to fatten them. 

73. The benefit from shearing the wethers about the 
middle of October, before they are fattened, appears in 
the effect the removal of the lieece has in hastening the 
maturity of the sheep. 

74. Feed a variety of fodders. 

75. Feed them often all they will eat eagerly. 

76. Keep the feed troughs clean. 

77. See that the sheep are dry and quiet in their pens. 

78. For quick fattening it is best to keep the sheep 
confined in small but well ventilated pens. 

79. Do not keep more than twenty-five in a single pen. 

80. Be careful in damp weather to keep the grain 
troughs clean and feed slightly less. 

81. F'eed at the same time each day. 

82. Keep the sheep out of storms. 

RAPE AS A SHEEP FEED. 

83. Rape has been sufficiently tested to prove its 
adaptability to climatic conditions of the northern 
states. 

84. Rape is a valuable fodder for the fall fattening of 
sheep. 

85 The Dwarf Essex variety is the best to sow. 

86. Plow the land late in the fall or early in the spring 
and make the soil rich. 


265 


EARL V LAMBS. 


87. It is desirable to make the soil for about two inches 
of line tilth with a disc or a spring-tooth harrow. 

88. Drill in rows two and a half feet apart with a 
Planet, Jr., drill, sowing about two and one-half pounds 
per acre. 

89. The first or second week in July is the best time to 
sow it for feeding the latter part of September or the fore 
part of October. 

90. Cultivate with a fine-tooth cultivator until the rape 
plants are large enough to cover the ground. 

91. Sheep should not be allowed to go into the rape 
field unless they have been feeding on pasture previously. 

92. When hungry they will gorge themselves on it, and 
bloating will result. 

93. It is a good plan to grow some rape in several fields 
so that when your hay or grain is cut you can turn in a 
flock of sheep and they will have access to both grass and 
rape. 

94. It is advisable to feed some bran or oats to the 
sheep when they are first turned on the rape. 

EARLY LAMBS. 

95. In. the early lamb market the lamb weighing 
twenty-five pounds dressed, with a well developed leg of 
mutton with plenty of lean meat, tender and juicy, with 
a good, thick caul spread over him, will sell for more 
money than the lamb weighing forty-five pounds that is 
lean and bony. 

96. The market likes a lamb that has a good caul, a 
large kidney and the largest proportion of lean meat. 

97. The Dorsets have given the best satisfaction for 
early lamb-raising. 

98. Out of five hundred ewes you may expect to get 
four hundred lambs that will be fit for market by New 
Year’s day, and by the first week of February you may 
expect to be sending forty or fifty a week, and by the first 
of May the four hundred would likely be marketed. 

99. The ewes and rams should be first turned together 
about the first of June. 

100. About fifty ewes should be allowed to each ram. 

101. The breeding ewes selected for early lamb-raising 
should be shorn in the fall, because they will then occupy 
less room, the lambs cannot injure the fleece by getting 
on the backs of the ewes, and in addition the quarters 
may be kept warmer than if the fleeces were not removed. 

102. The lambs should begin to drop about the first day 

260 


EARLY LAMBS. 


of November; then they can be put on the market about 
Christmas. 

103. The quarters for the lamb must be warm and 
properly ventilated. 

104. Small pens and troughs should be provided for the 
lambs, so that they may feed frequently without being 
interfered with by the older sheep. 

105. For forcing the lambs new process linseed-meal, 
unmixed, gives good results. 

106. When the lambs are a few weeks old cracked corn 
is a good addition to the oil-meal. 

107. The more the lambs can be made to eat the faster 
they will grow and the more money there is to be made 
out of them. 

108. The lambs should have some well cured clover hay 
cut for them. 

109. For weak and backward lambs fresh cow's milk is 
nourishing. 

110. The males should be castrated when two or three 
days old. 

111. After the first shipment is made divide the twin 
lambs remaining among the best ewes. 

112. The lambs require special dressing for market. 

113. In preparing the lambs for market after they 
have been dressed they should be covered with clean 
muslin and then put in a piece of burlap and firmly sewed. 

114. Dip the ewes for ticks and scab. 

115. A dip in which the killing element is carbolic acid 
is better than one in which the destructive agent is 
arsenic. The former leaves an odor that will last for 
weeks and thus prevent the attack of flies and keep the 
sheep from being infected if brought in contact with 
ticky or lousy sheep. 

116. An effective home-made dip for one hundred sheep 
is one hundred gallons of water, the juice from twenty- 
five pounds of tobacco, and ten pounds of sulphur. 

117. For scab, dip the sheep again after two weeks’ 
interval. 

118. When dipping see that the sheep are not over¬ 
heated or thirsty, 

119. They should be at least one minute in the bath. 

120. Keep the fluid stirred. 

121. The preservation of the health of the sheep in 
this country requires that they be furnished shelter from 
all fall and winter rains. 

122. Many sheep die from what some call grub in the 

267 


EARL Y LAMBS. 


head, but which is really the result of disease created by 
exposure to cold fall rain-storms. 

123. The flockmaster cannot afford to have 10 or 20 per 
cent, of his flock snuffling' all winter and producing weakly 
lambs that die because of the condition of the mother 
when pregnant. Kind care and proper shelter will lessen 
this. 

124. The proper time to give medicine for the destruc¬ 
tion of intestinal worms is when the stomachs are quite 
empty. 

125. The oil or spirits of turpentine is the best remedy 
for any of the internal parasites of sheep. For a full- 
grown sheep give a tablespoonful when used as an intes¬ 
tinal worm-destroyer, and when used for lung worms one- 
third of the quantity mixed with about four times as 
much linseed oil to loosen the irritation. 

126. Common blue vitriol in strong solution will kill the 
germs of foot-rot, and if proud-flesh is present, butter of 
antimony applied once or twice with a feather will 
destroy it. 

Of 

How to Sell Hogs. 

A question of financial importance to farmers is in 
regard to the shrinkage of hogs in dressing, to decide 
what should be the difference in the price between live 
and dressed hogs. A close calculator selected twenty 
pigs, well fed and fattened, though not large, with the 
following results, the exact weights being given: 



Live 

Dressed 


Live 

Dressed 

No. 

Weight. 

Weight. 

No. 

Weight. 

Weight. 

1 

172 

143 

12 

176 

145 

2 

151 

128 

13 

148 

118 

3 

155 

130 

14 

153 

128 

4 

126 

104 

15 

164 

138 

5 

135 

116 

16 

148 

120 

6 

163 

136 

17 

133 

115 

rr 

( 

130 

108 

18 

168 

139 

8 

136 

114 

19 

132 

114 

9 

153 

128 

20 

113 

90 

10 

148 

120 




11 

131 

113 

Totals... 

...2935 

2447 


Shrinkage, 488 pounds, or a trifle over one-seventh. He 
was offered $4 per 100 for the lot on foot, but sold for $5.10 
dressed, a gain of $7.62 in favor of dressing, and the 
rough lard was sufficient to pay for butchering. [268] 





THE PRINCIPLES OF BEE-KEEPING. 

9 


B EE-KEEPING on the farm is very much neglected. 
A few colonies of bees can be kept without adding 
materially to the labor of operating the farm, and at 
very small cost for appliances. 

Tons of honey go to waste every year in almost every 
part of the country because there are no bees to gather 
it. Honey is and always will be classed among the lux¬ 
uries, and the price will always be high enough to make 
production profitable and prevent a great many from 
having it on their table if they must buy it. At the same 
time a few colonies of bees will produce as much as any 
family can use, at no cost at all except to begin with, and 
that but a trifling amount. 

A few hives, a few appliances, such as smokers, honey 
knives and gloves, and a bee veil, are all that is needed to 
begin with. 

It requires no special skill to take care of bees, as they 
furnish their own food and take care of their house after 
once being placed in it. 

The hives used should be some movable frame kind, and 
these can be purchased ready-made at any bee supply 
house for about one dollar each, ready to nail together, 
or for a few cents more they can be had ready for use. 

An extractor is not necessary for farm purposes, as the 
honey may be had in pound sections just as the bees leave 
it, and in this shape it is most acceptable as a table 
luxury. 

Honey, besides being the most delicious sweet that we 
know, is valuable for its medicinal qualities. It is nature’s 
nectar prepared for use and contains medicinal qualities 
of high value. 

With the instructions that follow any one can take a 
few colonies of bees and have his own table furnished the 
year around, and in average seasons have enough to sell 
to pay large wages for the money invested. In good 

269 


THE PRINCIPLES OF BEE-KEEPING. 


season a colony of bees often stores surplus honey 
enough to more than pay for the first cost of bees and 
hive. In this short discourse we aim only to give practical 
ideas. 

The queen bee is the mother of all bees in the hive 
(there is no king bee), and might truthfully be called the 
mother bee. Her shape is different from that of the other 
bees, her body is longer and more tapering, and her wings 
are proportionately shorter than those of the drone or 
worker. No colony can exist long without this mother 
bee, as she deposits all the eggs laid in the hive, and it is 
estimated that the queen is capable of depositing three 
thousand eggs in twenty-four hours. She has a sting, but 
uses it only in deadly conflict with another queen. She 
lives to the age of four to eight years, when she begins to 
show signs of decrepitude. Her workers rear another to 
take her place, and both are tolerated and protected in 
the hive until the young queen becomes capable of per¬ 
forming the duties of her ancestress. It is well known if 
you remove the queen from a colony of bees they very 
soon commence to rear another, and it is also known that 
when a hive becomes very populous and honey is being 
gathered plentifully the same thing occurs. It is also a 
fact that if you take a quantity of bees, more or less, from 
a colony, and give them eggs or young larvae less than 
three days old, they will proceed to raise a queen, the 
same as when the queen becomes old. This is the princi¬ 
ple on which bee men raise queens for sale. The young 
larva or embryo queen is well guarded by the worker 
bees to prevent the old queen from stinging it to death. 

The workers are females whose ovaries are so 
imperfectly developed as to incapacitate them for laying 
eggs. The difference in the shape of the cell makes the 
kind of bee desired. The workers make all their bees to or¬ 
der, and live only about forty days, during the honey season. 
The drone is sometimes called the dude bee, does no work, 
and is destroyed by the workers as soon as the swarming 
season is over. Their time of life, like the dude’s, is 
regulated by circumstances. The eggs are hatched by 
the heat of clustering bees, the queen requiring sixteen, 
the worker twenty-one and the drone twenty-four days 
for full development, counting from the time the eggs 
are laid. 

We would not advise a farmer to engage extensively in 
bee culture, but at the beginning “make haste with 
experience,” as bees, like anything else about the farm, 

270 


THE PRINCIPLES OF BEE-KEEPING. 


must be attended to; if neglected, failure is certain. 
One colony of Italian bees is enough to begin with. We 
recommend the Italian on account of their superiority 
over all others as to gentleness, working qualities, hardi¬ 
ness and ability to defend themselves from moths, 
robbers, etc. 

Hives may be purchased at any planing-mill, sawed 
ready to nail together, cheaper than they can be made 
by hand. Have only one kind of hives, so that the 
different parts can be used in any other hive if necessary. 

Have all colonies practically boiling over with bees by 
the 1st of June, when the honey season begins. This can 
be done by feeding about the 1st of May or middle of 
April, a colony being fed daily one gill of syrup made 
from granulated sugar. Pine holes may be punctured in 
tin cans and used for this purpose, or old comb placed on 
the top of brood frames. 

Have your supers or section-boxes ready and place them 
on the brood frames about the 1st of June, and foundation 
comb should be used for starter in both sections and brood 
frames, as this insures straight comb. Often you will 
have trouble to induce the bees to enter the sections; if 
that occurs, place a filled section in the super, or else 
pour in some syrup, which will toll the bees up. The top 
of the supers must be well covered over with narrow strips 
of lath, or else the bees will crawl through and build their 
comb in the top of the lid. 

When the sections are all filled but the end ones, the 
bees begin filling at the center of the box. Then raise 
the super up and place an empty super beneath; in this 
way you will receive about double the amount of honey. 
The reason is this: it takes about ten days for the new 
honey to cure, or become the proper consistency to cap 
over. Rest assured the bees are good husbandmen and do 
their work well, and if they have nothing to do they 
“loaf.” The new super gives room for more honey and 
the bees fill it up, as well to be employed as to fill the 
space between their homes in the brood frames, for they 
despise an empty space. Time is honey with bees when 
the nectar flows. The supers should be taken off as soon 
as filled, thus securing nice white comb. Some desire to 
build up the number of colonies, but if this is the idea, 
not much honey can be expected; others desire honey in 
preference to a number of colonies. 

It is practically impossible to prevent swarming, yet it 
can be controlled to a certain extent. One of the best 

271 


THE PRINCIPLES OF BEE-KEEPING. 


plans we know of is to open the hive and cut out all queen 
cells (the queen cell is much longer than the others and 
as near as we can describe it, it resembles a large peanut 
shell). When a swarm comes out, and it is not desired to 
swarm it by itself, it can be put back into the original 
hive, and when the young queen and the old meet there is 
a deadly combat, and but one queen is left alive in the 
hive. When the bees swarm and have settled, take a 
bucket or a dish-pan, and with one hand give the limb a 
quick shake, letting them drop into the bucket or pan: 
then carry and pour them in front of the hive, it having 
previously been placed in the position desired. This is 
necessary, as bees soon take in their surroundings, and by 
moving the hive only a few feet they lose their “course ” 
and are lost. Be sure that the queen enters, or the bees 
will not stay. A number will usually return to the place 
where they first settled; take a few handfuls of “dog 
fennel ” and place or hang it where they settled, and the 
bees will immediately leave. 

Double up the small and late swarms, as the more bees 
in one hive the more honey. Thus two swarms together 
will build comb and make honey enough to winter on, 
when if left separate both would perish. 

To transfer bees from one hive to another use the 
smoker freely to quiet the bees ; then turn the hive upside 
down, place a box on the rim of the hive, but not over it 
as a lid, then with tw T o sticks pound on the hive for about 
twenty minutes. The bees will crawl up and enter the 
box on top and can then be taken and poured in front of 
the new hive. Be sure, however you get the queen. As 
soon as she is secured the old hive may be torn to pieces, 
and the new hive placed where the old one formerly stood, 
and the workers will return to it. Transferring should be 
done about the first of May. Bees should be looked after 
about the first of October to see if they have sufficient 
food for the winter. We feed our bees syrup made from 
granulated sugar. Tip the hive back so the syrup will 
not run out, and pour in at the entrance of the hive. You 
can pour in about one-half gallon and need not be afraid 
of drowning the bees; they will make their escape up 
their ladder (the comb). Leave the hive tipped back 
about twenty-four hours, and in the meantime the bees 
will carry the syrup up and place it in the most desirable 
place for them. Feeding should be done when the weather 
is warm enough for the bees to fly. Nothing is lost finan¬ 
cially in feeding. 


272 


THE PRINCIPLES OF BEE-KEEPING. 


April is the most fatal month for bees, as they are 
rearing - brood in large numbers; cold rains set in and they 
cannot work on the early bloom; they consume more 
honey, and if not fed will perish. 

Bees do. not swallow the honey, as some suppose, but 
place it with their bill, as gathered, in their honey-sack, 
in front and on the outside of the stomach. A bee weighs 
three times as much when it returns from the fields 
loaded as it did when it started from the hive in the 
morning, hence it carries home twice its weight in store ; 
but a bee is capable of holding up twenty-five times its 
own weight. They do not manufacture honey, but place 
it in the comb in the same condition as they gathered it; 
if they gather sorghum you will have sorghum honey. 

When stung do not pull the stinger out, but press it out 
and then put damp soda on the wound. Never hitch a 
sweaty team near a beehive, as the bees are sure to be 
attracted. 

Always handle your bees during the middle of the day. 
as most of the bees are away at that time. 

It is the old queen that leaves the hive, and she takes 
all the bees that are able to follow. 

The yellow accumulation seen on the legs of the bees is 
not comb, as some suppose, but pollen, which is fed to the 
young bees. 

Bees do not gather wax, but secrete it; they fill them¬ 
selves with honey, and then form themselves into a 
cluster, and when the wax-scales protrude from the scales 
of their abdomen they are then handed up to the comb- 
builders, who construct the beautiful six-sided cells. 

Bees fly from three to five miles in search of stores. 
They do not destroy grapes, but will sip the juice after 
the birds or insects have punctured them. 

To prevent stings use the smoker gently and work with 
them during the warmest part of the day and when the 
sun shines, and do not frighten them by jarring the hive, 
but “make haste slowly,” for bees do not like quick, 
nervous movements. 

The humming heard at night in the hives is made by 
the bees 1 wings in fanning the honey gathered during the 
day, to evaporate it, or cure it to a proper consistency. 

Keep salt constantly scattered about the hive; it tends 
to keep away ants, and the moth-miller will not deposit 
her eggs in or near salt, thus preventing worms in the 
hive. Salt is not disagreeable to bees, but makes them 
tame and tends to their thrift. 

278 


THE PRINCIPLES OF BEE-ICEEPING. 

There are about 5,000 bees in a pound, and probably 
10,000 bees in an average swarm. 

Face the hive either to the east or south and never 
place it against a house or fence, but always have plenty 
of room to walk while working the bees. Bear in mind 
that the intense heat of the sun on the south side of a 
building is liable to give the bees the swarming fever, or 
melt the comb in the hives. Thus the hives should be 
placed in some shady corner in the orchard, where stock 
is not allowed to run. 

Success in bee culture depends on the man, and industry 
is one quality he must possess. The boy who invests his 
money in bees, and then stays at home and looks after 
them, will make a success in bee culture. In conclusion 
we would advise you to try, at least, one stand, as you will 
find it both pleasant and profitable. 

c 4 s 

A Portable Pig-Sty. 

It is a very doubtful policy to erect permanent houses 
to keep swine in, and many good breeders do not do it. 
The danger of contracting hog cholera and so infecting a 
permanent hog-house with it is too great a risk to take, 
and many breeders are now depending entirely on portable 

houses. One of the han¬ 
diest and best of these 
is here illustrated. 

The illustration shows 
just how it is made. The 
runners are 2x8 inches 
and eight feet long. The 
roof is made from 12- 
foot boards, cut in half, 
and the width is 6 feet 
from out to out. There 
is a cross-tie at each end 
of the sled and two uprights for the door, 2x4 inches; 
all parts well nailed together. One of these houses is an 
excellent place for a brood sow, as she cannot lie on her 
pigs in such a house, they being able to get out of her 
way in the corners next the sides. Half a dozen 200-pound 
hogs may be kept in one of these houses, and when it gets 
foul a team of horses may be hitched to it and remove it 
to fresh ground, 

374 














137 POINTS FOR DAIRYMEN. 

1. Select the best cows in your herd, or that you can 
buy, to keep, and dispose of the others. 

2. The best cow for the dairy is the one that produces 
the greatest amount of butter in a year (for food con¬ 
sumed), when being rightly fed. 

3. To renew or increase your herd, raise the heifer 
calves from your best cows. 

4. Use the best dairy-bred sire you can get—one, if 
possible, that has a long line of ancestors who have been 
first-class dairy animals. 

5. In this way you can, with proper care and feed, 
make each generation better than the preceding. 

6. It is neither profitable nor necessary for a cow to go 
dry more than four to six weeks. 

7. Especially should your young cows be watched and 
not allowed to acquire the habit of drying up too soon. 

8. Darken the stable in which cows are milked through 
fly time. It will not only economize the patience of the 
milker, but the cost of milk production as well. 

9. Keep a record of the time when cows are bred, and 
have no guess-work about the time of calving. 

10. Provide a roomy box-stall and allow the cow to 
become accustomed to it a week prior to calving. 

11. Rich foods should be withheld for a short time 
prior and subsequent to calving. 

12. The udder should receive prompt attention. An 
obstacle may be removed from the teat the first hour 
that might baffle science later. 

13. A pail of scalded bran should be given the cow as 
soon as possible after calving. 

14. The calf should be permitted to suck for two or 
three days. 

15. After separating the calf from its mother, feed the 
natural milk, as soon as drawn, for a week or ten days. 

16 Then begin gradual^ so substitute skim-milk with 
oil-meal jelly stirred into it. 

17. Scald the calf's feed-pail daily. 

18. Feed three times a day and not more than three 
quarts at a time until the calf is well started. 

19. Warm the milk by placing the vessel that contains 
the milk in hot water. 

20. Warm the milk to 90° Fahrenheit. 

21. Don’t trust your finger, but use a thermometer. 
It will save many a calf’s life. 

275 


POINTS FOR DAIRYMEN. 


22. The man whose ideal of a cow is high, and who uses 
good care, good food and gentleness, is sure to receive 
the highest profit and the greatest pleasure that can be 
had in dairying. 

23. Begin with the calf to develop the cow. 

24. Feed the calf liberally on the kinds of food which, 
if given the cow, would be good milk-producing food. 

25. Such food contains a large proportion of nitrogen 
and will promote rapid growth without making the calf 
excessively fat. 

26. Feed the calf skim-milk, oil-meal, clover hay, oats, 
wheat and bran. 

27. Breed the heifer to come in at two years old. 

28. After calving feed lightly on concentrated food at 
first, but gradually increase till in ten days she will be on 
full feed. 

29. The better the cow is fed, up to her capacity to 
assimilate, the greater will be the profit. 

30. Feed a variety of good fodders, such as clover hay. 
ensilage and corn-fodder—all the cow will eat. 

31. Feed a daily ration of grain from eight to twelve 
pounds, according to the size and capacity of the cow. 

32. Do not feed too much corn, not more than one- 
third, or at most not more than one-half the grain 
ration ; the balance may be a mixture of wheat-bran, oil- 
meal or cottonseed-meal, and oats, if oats are not too 
high in price. 

33. It will pay to feed a small grain ration in summer, 
when cows are on grass, if they are giving milk. 

34. It pays better to produce milk in winter, when dairy 
products are higher, than in summer. , 

35. Cows should come fresh in September or October 
for greatest profit. 

36. It makes very little difference in the cost of keeping 
a cow whether she comes in in the fall or spring; she 
must be fed the whole year round in either case. 

37. A cow should not be compelled to work hard for 
food by treading ail day over a scanty pasture. 

38. She will take very little exercise if she can get 
food and drink without it. 

39. Don’t make her travel hard for water, but have 
good, pure water convenient. 

40. She likes to lie down most of the time to chew her 
cud and take comfort 

41. She must be comfortable to do her best. 

42. She should have free access to salt. 

276 


POINTS FOR DAIRYMEN. 


43. Don’t drive her fast, and don’t let dogs chase her. 

44. Give cows a warm, comfortable stable in winter, 
with good ventilation and plenty of light. 

45. The stable should have tight walls with ventilating 
flues running from near the floor up, and out at the roof, 
to carry off the foul air. 

46. Cows should not be kept out of doors in cold, rainy 
or uncomfortable weather. 

47. Do by your cows as you would like to be done by 
yourself. 

48. If it is too cold and disagreeable for you to stand 
around out of doors, think of the cows and put them in. 

49. Provide the cows with shade. They will pay you 
for it. 

50. Do not compel your cows to drink ice-water in 
winter. 

51. Give them water as often as they want it, at a 
temperature that suits them. 

52. In winter, if your cows have water constantly 
before them in the stable, at the temperature of a good, 
comfortable stable, they will drink at least twice a day, 
and sometimes four times a day. 

53. Cows want to drink every time after eating, unless 
sufficient water is contained in the food. 

54. Speak to a cow as you would to a mother. 

55. Always confine cows in the stable to be milked. It 
is better than having them chase one another around the 
yard. 

56. Have the stables clean and have the cow clean, or 
you can’t get clean milk. Lime-water and whitewash for 
walls and posts is a good thing. Land plaster is a good 
absorbent in the stable. 

57. Before commencing to milk, brush all loose dirt 
from the sides and udder of the cow. 

58. After a little manipulation of the teats and udder 
the milk is ready to “ come down.” Then is the time to 
take it, and do not delay. 

59. Milk as rapidly as possible without irritating or 
worrying the cow. 

60. No definite rule can be given as to how the teats 
should be handled in milking, as cows differ and hands 
differ so much ; but be sure of one thing—please the cow 
if possible. 

61. There should always be a friendly feeling between 
the cow and the milker, and milkers should not be changed 
if it can be avoided. 


277 


POINTS FOR DAIRYMEN. 


62. A cow who is afraid of or hates her milker will not 
“give down” her milk, and what she does give will be 
deficient in butter fat. 

63. Always milk a cow in the same manner, at about 
the same time and speed. Any change will irritate and 
tend to excite her. 

64. Always milk in the same order and at the same 
time of day. 

65. When it comes a cow’s turn to be milked she knows 
it, and expects it, and wants to be milked. 

66. If you disappoint her and milk her half an hour 
later, the chances are that you will get less and poorer 
milk than if you milked her at the proper time. 

67. Always milk a cow dry before leaving her, but do 
not continue stripping after the milk is all drawn. 

68. If part of the milk is left at each milking in the 
udder, nature will soon stop providing it, because it is not 
taken. 

69. The last milk drawn from the cow is much richer 
than the first. The last quart usually contains more 
than three times as much butter-fat as the first quart. 

70. Milking should be done with clean, dry hands. 

71. Milking should be done in clean, dry tin pails. No 
wooden pails should be used. 

72. Milk should not be exposed to foul air. 

73. If it is to be set for creaming, it should be set as 
quickly as possible after milking. 

74. If it is to be taken to the factory, either creamery 
or cheese factory, or is to be sold in the market, it should 
be immediately aerated with pure air and cooled. 

75. Don’t neglect to aerate the morning’s milk, even if 
you are in a hurry. It is often the worst milk delivered 
at the factory. 

76. The milk of a sick cow is not fit for food, and is 
prohibited by law. 

77. Strain the milk as soon as drawn from the cow. 

78. As long as milk is warmer than the surrounding 
atmosphere it is constantly giving off vapor, and will not 
take on odors, but injurious bacteria may find their way 
into it. 

79. If milk is cooler than the surrounding air, the 
impure vapors in the air are rapidly condensed on the 
milk, thereby causing taints. 

80. If carried to the factory, there should be a 
ventilator in the top of the can, and the can should be 
protected from the rays of the sun on the way. 

278 


POINTS TOP DAIRYMEN . 


81. If all the patrons of the factory do not deliver good 
milk, the product, whether cheese or butter, cannot be 
first-class, and cannot bring first-class prices. 

82. Good butter can only be made from good milk, and 
this can only be had from healthy cows kept in a good, 
wholesome atmosphere, and fed on good, sweet, wholesome 
food, with pure water to drink. 

83. The most effective way of obtaining the cream from 
the milk is by means of the separator. Indeed, it is very 
probable that the time is near at hand when the creaming 
of nearly all the milk used for butter-making will be done 
by the separator, either on the farm or at the creamery. 

84. The separator gets nearly all the butter-fat. 

85. If the separator leaves over one-tenth per cent, of 
fat in the skim milk it is not doing good work. 

86. Keep up the proper speed and temperature and 
your separator will invariably do good work. 

87. The temperature of milk to separate well should 
be as high as 80° . 

88. It separates best immediately after being drawn 
from the cow, before it has had time to cool. 

89. Immediately after separating, the cream should be 
well aired and cooled down to about 60 ° , and held at that 
temperature till slightly acid, and then churned. 

90. Let the cream get thick, but never let it ‘‘ whey off. ’’ 

91. The usual temperature for churning is from 58 to 
62°, but no. one can tell what temperature is best for 
his milk until after a trial. 

92. The churning, to be most exhaustive, should be 
done at as low a temperature as possible, and not be 
longer about it than forty-five to sixty minutes. 

93. Don’t be satisfied with your churning if you leave 
over two-tenths per cent, fat in the butter-milk. It 
don’t pay. 

94. If the butter is too soft it has probably been 
churned at too high a temperature. It is easy to over¬ 
work such butter, i. e., spoil the grain. 

95. Under certain conditions of food, and with certain 
cow t s, churning has been done quickly at 40° . 

96. Under other conditions it has been impossible to 
churn at less than 70° . 

97. When the butter is in granules the size of wheat 
kernels, the churn should be stopped. 

98. Throw in some salt, and give a few turns of the 
churn to make the butter float. 

99. Draw off the buttermilk and wash in two or three 

waters. 279 


POINTS FOR DAIRYMEN. 


100. Many persons salt in the churn, but if your cus* 
tomers are particular about the salting - , it can be done 
more to a nicety by taking the butter out and salting on 
the worker. 

101. The average customer wants about an ounce of 
salt to a pound of butter. 

102. If your customer wants pretty dry butter, work it 
once, then let it lie in a cool place from two to three 
hours, then rework and pack, and you will have no mot¬ 
tled or streaked butter. 

103. Make your butter as to salt and color to suit your 
customers, and put it in such packages as they wish. 

104. An uneven distribution of salt makes streaked 
butter. 

105. If you make good butter you can always get a 
good price for it. 

106. Send it to the butter market. 

107. If you have no special customers, send it to a 
good, reliable commission man, and he will soon find buyers. 

108. After they have tried it and found it good, they 
will ask for it again, and after a while, if they find 
it good every time, they will get to think they can’t get 
along without it and can be induced to pay a fancy price 
for it. 

109. A good reputation is a good help in making butter, 
so when you get it don’t for the world blast it by sending 
off a package of poor butter when there is a chance of a 
good customer getting it. 

110. If, by accident, you have a poor tub of butter, 
don’t put your brand upon it, but send it off and let it be 
sold on its merits. 

111. It is a pretty well established fact that a profit¬ 
able butter cow is a profitable cheese cow. 

112. It is not wise to take any cream from milk that is 
to be made into cheese. 

113. There may be a small per cent, gain by the oper¬ 
ation, but it will be followed by a damaged reputation 
that it will take a long time to outgrow, so that in the 
end it will be a losing business. 

114. Milk at cheese factories should be pooled on the 
basis of the butter-fat contained in it, the same as in 
creameries. 

115. Many careful experiments have proved that this 
does substantial justice. 

116. Remember that the most serious obstacle the 
cheese-maker has to contend with is tainted milk. 

280 


POINTS FOR DAIRYMEN. 


117. The causes of taint in the milk nearly all rest 
with the producer. 

118. It is only justice to deserving patrons that the 
cheese-maker should refuse milk delivered at the factory 
in bad condition, but the cheese-maker cannot always tell 
what milk is bad., as germs may be in it that will develop 
only after heating it. Such germs get into the milk 
through uncleanliness. 

119. One batch of impure milk contains enough bac¬ 
teria to contaminate an entire vat of pure milk. 

120. Milk for cheese should not be treated precisely as 
it is for butter-making. 

121. Thorough aeration is absolutely necessary before 
the milk is placed where the temperature would be 
rapidly lowered. 

122. A simple way to aerate milk is to pour it slowly 
with a long-handled dipper, one that will reach the 
bottom of the can. 

123. Do not use too large cans, for the milk will not be 
properly aerated in such cans. 

124. Be sure that the cans are smooth and well soldered 
and that there are no corners for dirt to get into. 

125. The same thing with the covers. Don’t buy a can 
where the edge of the cover is turned over and not 
soldered. 

126. Keep milk cans in good repair, but do not try to 
tinker up a rusty old can that has passed its day of 
usefulness, for it may spoil more milk than ten new cans 
would cost. 

127. In repairing cans don’t have a bottom soldered in 
over the old one or a patch put on under which the milk 
may afterwards get and rot. 

128. Shove the cover down close to the milk, so that it 
will not churn on the way to the factory. 

129. Do not allow whey to stand in the milk cans after 
returning from the factory. 

130. Do not take whey from the factory unless it can 
be obtained sweet. 

131. Insist upon your cheese-maker thoroughly scalding 
the whey and scrubbing out the whey tank daily. 

132. Sweet whey, when properly fed, may be worth 
from eight to ten cents per one hundred pounds. 

133. Sour whey, when overfed, pay not only be a posi¬ 
tive damage to the animals receiving it, but a source of 
contamination to the milk carried to the factory. 

134. As soon as you return from the factory wash the 

cans. 281 


points for dairymen. 

135. Rinse first with cold water, then wash thoroughly 
with hot water, rinse last with scalding water, and 
place cans where they will drain, be in the sun, and have 
a good circulation of air all around. 

136. Water that you can hold your hand in won’t scald 
a can. 

137. Do not rely upon the pump in times of scarcity of 
milk and low dividends. 

¥ 

Handy Acre Measurements. 

Table showing the square feet and the feet square of 
the fractions of an acre : 


Fractions of an acre. 

.Square feet. 

Feet square. 

1-16 

2,722* 

52* 

* 

5,445 

73| 

1 

10,890 

104* 

* 

14.520 

120* 

i 

21,780 

147* 

1 

43,560 

208* 

2 

87,120 

2951 


Value of Food for Domestic Animals. 


The table below gives the comparative number of pounds 
of each substance to equal in effect that of any standard 
food—as, for instance, that of hay : 

Good hay, to give a certain nourishment, requires. .100 lbs. 
Good clover hay will give same effect by the use of.. 95 “ 


Rye straw 

u 

u 

u 

..355 “ 

Oat straw 

u 

u 

a 

..220 “ 

Potatoes 

(( 

(( 

i i 

..195 “ 

Carrots 

n 

a 

n 

..280 “ 

Beets 

n 

il 

a 

..346 “ 

Rutabagas 

u 

u 

a 

..262 “ 

Wheat 

u 

ll 

a 

.. 43 “ 

Peas 

n 

il 

n 

.. 44 “ 

Beans 

u 

(( 

K 

.. 46 “ 

Rye 

a 

(( 

u 

.. 49 “ 

Barley 

a 

a 

u 

.. 51 “ 

Indian corn 

(( 

a 

n 

.. 56 “ 

Oats 

n 

u 

u 

.. 59 “ 

Buckwheat 

n 

(( 

C( 

.. 64 “ 

Oil-cake 

n 

a 

n 

.. 64 “ 


282 


HIDES AND FURS. 

¥ 


How to Handle and Cure Them—Valuable Hints for Farmers 


and Trappers. 


C OMPETENT authorities estimate that the loss to 
farmers and trappers in this country each year on 
hides and furs improperly handled exceeds a million 
dollars. The following instructions as to the proper 
taking off, handling and curing of furs and skins, prepared 
by the experts of the Northwestern Hide and Fur Com¬ 
pany of Minneapolis, are therefore of great value. The 
cuts illustrate so plainly both the right and the wrong 
way of doing things that even a child may soon learn to 
do a good job. 

Fig. 1 shows the animal on its back, the dotted lines 
indicating the course to be taken with the knife. 

Fig. 2 shows the result—a perfect hide. 

Fig. 3 shows the wrong way. 

Fig. 4 shows the result. Such hides, even if not dam¬ 
aged by cuts, are classed as second grade, and if dried on 
the fence, exposed to sun and weather, are fit only for glue. 

In skinning beef hides and calf skins keep the back 
of the knife close to the hide, drawing tightly with left 
hand. Thus you will avoid cutting or scoring them. 

Observe the difference between Figs; 1 and 2 as regards 
the dotted lines on the fore leg. The knife should go 
down to the armpit, then forward to the point of brisket, 
as in Fig. 1. Never cut the throat crosswise. Always 
take out horns and tail-bone. 

To salt hides thoroughly, a bucketful of good salt is 
required for a sixty-pound hide. (Larger and smaller 
hides in proportion.) Rub the salt on well and roll the 
hide up. 

Fig. 5 shows a butcher’s skinning-knife. Never attempt 
to take off a beef hide without such a knife. One hole in 
a large hide equals the cost of several knives. 

Mink, marten, fisher, otter, skunk, musk-rat, fox and 
wolverine hides should be cased. Raccoon, bear, beaver 
and badger should be open and in good shape, and all 
kinds scraped clean to bring good prices. Never salt 
furs, deer or antelope skins. 

Fig. 6 shows casing-boards for stretching furs that 
should be cased. 

Fig. 7 shows the result. [283] 



FIG.3 


















































0 % 


FIG.6 



FIG.fi 



FIG.9 


FIG.7 




FIG,10 






















HIDES , FURS , ETC. 


Fig. 8 shows a raccoon skin properly trimmed and 
stretched (trappers’ style). 

Fig. 9 shows one in bad shape. Such a skin, even if well 
furred, is worth only about two-thirds price. 

Fig. 10 shows a beaver skin stretched in proper shape. 

In tacking or nailing up furs that should be stretched 
open, first cut off the legs at the knees; then commence 
at the head, nailing alternately right and left side, so as 
not to stretch one side more than the other. Do not 
stretch out the legs at all, but stretch out the flanks to 
conform as nearly as possible to Fig. 8. Always carefully 
remove the tail-bone from fur skins ; otherwise they will 
spoil. The proper thing for this purpose is two sticks 
notched to fit the bone. The vacancy left by the bone 
should be filled with salt or alum water. 

Bait for Different Game. 

Squirrel—Grain, nuts or ear of corn. 

Musk-rat—Carrots, potatoes, apples, etc. 

Woodchuck—Roots, fruits, corn or bread. 

Mink—Fowl, flesh or roasted fish. 

Skunk—Mice, meat, piece of fowl. 

Fox—Fowl, flesh, fish, toasted cheese. 

Opossum—Nuts, corn, mice, piece of fowl. 

Raccoon—Chickens, fish or frog. 

Badger—Mice or flesh of any kind. 

Otter—Fish, piece of a bird or otter musk. 

Marten—Head of a fish, piece of meat or fowT. 

Beaver—Fresh roots. 

Wolf or Lynx—Waste parts of tame or wild fowl: the 
inwards of a hog. 

Rabbit—Corn or wheat. 

Prairie Chicken and Quail—Corn or wheat. 

The Trapper’s Secret. 

Mix together thoroughly four pounds of tallow, one- 
half pound strained honey, one-quarter dram musk and 
three drams oil of lavender. This quantity is sufficient 
for forty pills or balls. Place one of these under the pan 
of each trap when setting it. The peculiar odor of this 
compound will attract all kinds of animals, but it is more 
especially adapted for bears, wolves, foxes, wild cats, 
minks, sables, martens, etc. 

Tanning Skins With the Wool or Hair On. 

The following method is one of the simplest and best in 
use; v 286 


HIDES , FURS, ETC. 


Skins that are to he tanned should be soaked in water 
for twenty-four hours, and all the flesh scraped off with a 
dull knife. This can best be done by stretching- them, 
after they have been soaked, over a smooth log or other 
concave surface. 

Having the skin prepared, take, for a dog or sheep skin 
or a small calf skin, three pounds of alum and one-quarter 
pound of coarse salt—rock salt is best—and dissolve them 
by boiling in enough water to cover the skin. When the 
water has cooled enough so the hand may be held in it 
pour it into a tub and put the skin in and leave it four 
days, beating it with a pounder or stick of wood every 
day; then dry it in the shade. Heat the mixture again 
and put in the skin for another four days; then take it 
out and beat it well with a wooden mallet to make it 
flexible, and hang it up to dry, rubbing and working it 
between the hands occasionally until it is thorough^ dry. 
A skin tanned by this method will remain soft and pliable 
and will never shed its hair. 

If a sheep or goat skin is to be tanned with the wool on, 
it should be very thoroughly washed, in strong soap-suds, 
before being put into the tan liquor. 

The skins of very young lambs tanned in this way and 
dyed make elegant wraps, coats or capes for cold weather, 
and are as good for this purpose as the high-priced ones 
imported from Asia. 

If it is desired to color a sheep skin after tanning it, 
this can be done by using any of the common dyes. A 
shallow vessel should be used to prevent the dye from 
discoloring the skin, unless it is designed to color the skin 
also. 

Skins may be tanned with the wool or hair off by the 
same method. To get the wool or hair off lay the skin 
with the flesh side up and cover with half an inch of newly 
burned wood ashes, wetting them moderately. Then roll 
the skin tightly, t}dng it to prevent unrolling, and let it 
lie for twenty-four hours, when the hair or wool can be 
pulled or scraped off very easily. After a skin is tanned 
and dried, it can be very nicely finished by thoroughly 
rubbing the flesh side .with pummice or rotten stone to 
make it smooth. 

Garments made of skins tanned by this method are fully 
equal to those sold at high prices. Goatskin robes made 
from skins tanned in this way are frequently sold as wolf 
robes, 

387 


HOW TO SURVEY LAND. 

$ 


HERE are two simple methods by which land may be 



quite accurately surveyed and the number of acres 


in a field determined very quickly. One of these is 
to make a wheel of light material, that is exactly thirty- 
one and a half inches in diameter. The circumference of 
this wheel will be almost exactly eight feet three inches, 
or one-half rod. Set this wheel in a frame and push it 
wheelbarrow fashion ahead of you and count the revolu¬ 
tions of the wheel, each revolution being half a rod. 
Having wheeled the machine across two sides of a field, 
it will be easy to determine the number of rods the field 
is in length and width, and from this the number of acres 



Surveying Wheel. 


may be computed. The illustration shows how the 
machine is made. 

Another machine for this purpose is a triangle made as 
shown in the illustration. The points are exactly five 
feet six inches apart, or one-third of a rod. This is made 
of light strips, and is “walked” over the ground to be 
measured by turning first one and then the other foot 
forward, counting every three steps of the machine as a 
rod._ With a little practice a man can walk this machine 
along quite rapidly, and it has the merit that it can be 
made by any one who can use a saw and hammer. The 
one here illustrated is shown with a mark in the middle 
of the cross-bar and a plumb-line attached, which is not 
necessary in surveying land, but is used in leveling ditches 
and measuring grades, as described on following page. 


288 













SUR VE YING — DITCH-B UILDING—DRAINING. 

How to Level a Ditch. 


Stand the machine illustrated below for surveying land 
on a floor, and at the height of four feet bolt on a straight- 
edged strip two feet long, being careful to have it exactly 
parallel with the cross-bar which holds the feet apart. 
Now find the exact middle of the cross-bar and make a 
plain mark there. Then suspend a plumb-bob from the 
peak of the triangle as shown in the illustration, and the 
leveler is ready to begin work with. 

Stand the machine at any point on the line of the ditch 
that is to be leveled, and set it so that the straight edge 
which parallels the cross-bar points along the line of the 
ditch. Level the machine by setting it so that the plumb- 
bob is just over the middle mark on the cross-bar. Have 



Ditcli-leveler. 


some one go some distance away along the line of the 
ditch with a straight pole, which he holds with one end on 
the ground perpendicularly before him, while you sight 
over the top of the straight edge and by signals show him 
where the line of vision strikes the pole. Having marked 
this place, you move the machine to your assistant, and 
measure from the marks he has made on the pole to the 
lower end of it. If the distance is four feet, the land 
between where you stood and your assistant is level. If 
the mark is more than four feet from the end of the pole, 
the ground descends from your position to that of your 
assistant, and if the mark is less than four feet from the 
bottom end of the pole, there is a rise from one point to 


289 








S UR VE YING — D1TCH-B UILDING—DRAINING. 


the other. By noting - the difference in elevation and 
driving - a peg - at every point where an observation is 
taken, the ditch may be leveled or given more or less 
fall, as is thought best. 

How to Find the Size of Tile Necessary to Drain a Given 

Number of Acres. 

The proper size of tiles to be used in the construction 
of drains is of great importance, and no part of the 
work requires more careful consideration than this. It 
is necessary that the tile shall have capacity enough to 
remove in a short time the greatest probable amount of 
water that will ever need to be drawn off. If a tile drain 
will not draw off the surplus water within twenty-four 
hours the crops on the land will often be ruined. 

Land may be said to be well drained when the tile 
drains in it are large enough to draw off in twenty-four 
hours water enough to cover the surface to a depth of 
one-half inch. 

Very often the soil will absorb and hold for the benefit 
of the growing crops all of the water that falls when the 
rainfall has been one-half inch, but when the soil holds 
fully as much water as is good for the crops, if one-half 
inch of rain falls and the drains cannnot carry it off 
quickly, there is often great loss to the crops. In such a 
case, if the drains are too small, they fail to be fully 
effective, and the loss is just in proportion to their lack in 
this respect. 

There is no danger of getting the drain capacity too 
great, for only the surplus water in the soil is carried 
away. 

The following tables may be used to determine the 
surface which tile of a given size, with a given grade or 
fall, will drain : 

Table i.—Discharge of Tile from 4 Inches to 20 Inches 


ON 

a Grade of 

1 Foot per ioo. 

Diameter 

Discharge of 

Diameter 

Discharge of 

of tile 

cubic feet 

of tile 

cubic feet 

in inches. 

per second. 

in inches. 

per second. 

4 

0.16 

12 

3-40 

(5 

•49 

15 

6.29 

8 

1.11 

iS 

IO -37 

9 

i -53 

20 

13-85 

10 

2.05 




290 












SUR VE YIA G—DITCH-BUILDING—DR AIN1NG. 


Table 2.—Grades per ioo Feet and their Square Roots. 


Grade 
per 100 ft. 
in feet. 

Grade in 
inches 
(approxi¬ 
mated). 

Square 

root 

of grade. 

Grade 
per 100 ft. 
in feet. 

Grade in 
inches 
(approxi¬ 
mated). 

Square 

root 

of grade. 

0.04 


0.2 

0.4 

4X 

.632 

•05 


.224 

•45 

5H 

.671 

.06 

•245 

•5 

6 

.707 

.08 

7 A 1 

.283 

•55 

6 

•742 

.09 

1 

•3 

.6 

7 y& 

•775 

. 1 

1 yk 

.316 

.65 

7X 

.806 

.12 


•346 

■7 

8 » 

•837 

.14 

■X 

•374 

•75 

9 

.866 

.16 

2 

•4 

.8 

9t 

•894 

.18 

2X 

•424 

.85 

10 X 

.922 

.2 

2 Vz 

•447 

•9 

10# 

•949 

•25 

3 

•5 

•95 

ii# 

•975 

•3 

3% 

•548 

1 . 

12 

1 . 

•35 

4 l X 

•592 





These tables are calculated for main drains when the 
whole surface drained is well drained by laterals leading 
out from the main drain. 

To find the number of acres that a main tile of a given 
size and grade will drain, multiply the discharge of the 
tiles, according to the size as given in Table 1, by the 
square root of the grade on which the tile is to be laid, as 
found in Table 2. When it is desired to have the tile large 
enough to carry off one-half inch of water in twenty-four 
hours multiply the result by 48. 

Example: How many acres will a 12-inch main drain 
when the grade is 2 inches per 100 feet? 

Looking at Table 1, we find that a 12-inch tile at a grade 
of 1 foot per 100 feet will discharge 3.40 cubic feet per 
second. 

Table 2 shows that the square root of 0.16 foot, or 2 inches, 
is ascertained to be 0.4 foot: 3.40x0.4x48=65.28 acres. 

Where the land is well drained by having numerous 
laterals it will not require as large main drains to be fully 
effective as it will where the system is not so perfect. 

In addition to the tables good judgment must be used 
and the surface conditions considered. A field in a level 
country may not need drains of more than half the 
capacity required in another field of the same size where 
the land beyond its limits slopes toward it from every 
direction. 291 





















PRUNING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING. 


* 


O matter how good the selection of fruit nor how 



well the orchard is cared for, without proper 


pruning success is impossible. The tendency of all 
fruit trees is to produce too much new wood, and unless 
this is checked by judicious pruning the energy of the 
tree will be used to support this wood instead of perfect¬ 
ing the fruit. Where this tendency is checked by pruning 
away a part of the wood, the full power of the roots is 
used in what is left, and the fruit, receiving better 
nourishment, becomes larger and better in every way. 
Thinning the fruit, which is only another way of pruning 
(this will be treated of in another place), also causes that 
which is left to be greatly improved. 

It should be remembered that it is in the power of the 
fruit-grower to shape his trees exactly to his own will. 
Heretofore trees have been allowed to grow too high, and 
when it came time to gather the fruit it required 
much labor to do so. The modern method is to produce 
low heads and a spreading habit, which produces better 
fruit and makes it more accessible. 

In setting out a young orchard two-year-old trees are 
better than older ones. If two rows are taken, and two- 
year trees set in one and four-year trees in the other, at 
the end of live years the two-year trees will be as large 
as the others and usually better-shaped, because in the 
young trees it is possible to produce a better head than 
in the older ones. 

Trees when set in the orchard should not have a branch. 
They should be merely straight stalks, with a good supply 
of roots. The stalk should be cut off at the height that 
it is intended to have the head of the tree begin. 

The buds just below will develop into branches, and here 
is the grower's opportunity to begin the formation of a 
shapely tree. Never allow two branches to start exactly 
opposite each other, as this produces a fork that may 
allow a heavy weight of fruit to split the tree. The head 
should be well-balanced and symmetrical, and if the trees 
are watched closely they may be trained so that no pruning 
that cannot be done with a pocket-knife will ever be 
necessary. In fact, with great care a tree may be trained 
so as to make pruning entirely unnecessary, but this 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 


would require constant watchfulness and the pinching oil’ 
of all buds showing where they are not wanted. 

All fruit trees should be so pruned that the rays of the 
sun may penetrate every part of the head. This makes 
the fruit in all parts of the tree of the same quality and 
increases its value in the ma_rket. 

One of the best fruit growers in this country has said 
that the best time to prune is whenever you are in the 
orchard and have a pocket-knife with 3 am. This is good 
advice for the orchardist whose whole time is given to his 
trees, but for the busy farmer such close attention is not 
possible. The ordinary farm orchard should be properly 
pruned every spring, and if this is continued it will never 
be necessary to prune off any large limbs. 

Sharp pruning shears should be used, and the branch 
should be cut off as close to the body of the tree as possi¬ 
ble, to allow the new wood to cover the cut in the shortest 
time. 

Where, in pruning old or neglected orchards, it is 
necessary to lop off limbs more than one inch in diameter, 
it is best to cover the wound with grafting-wax, a recipe 
for making which will be found under the directions for 
grafting, as this will prevent the occurrence of a dead or 
rotted spot in the place where the limb was. 

In general, pruning may be done at any time from the 
time frost is out in the spring until the trees are in bloom. 

Peach trees that seem to be overloaded with fruit are 
often relieved of a part of their crop by cutting away the 
fruit-bearing branches after the fruit is set. This is a 
very good plan to follow with peaches, but not so good 
with other trees. 

- Budding and Grafting. 

The man who understands budding and grafting may 
have the choicest fruit without further cost than the 
labor of raising it. ' It is a prevalent notion that budding 
and grafting requires great skill, but the exact contrary 
is the fact. A ten-year-old bo} r , who has been shown how 
it is done, can, after a little practice, bud peaches 01 - 
cherries as well as an expert, and grafting of some kinds 
requires even less skill. 

While both budding and grafting are closely related 
and might be treated together, it is thought better and 
clearer to treat them under separate sections. 

Some trees can be easily grafted and do not bud well, 
while others can be budded with great success and require 
an expert to make a graft successful. [293] 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 

Budding 1 is done when the hud is mature and the tree in 
full flow of sap, while grafting is done when the stock and 
scion are both dormant. 

Budding is commonly practiced in the north to propa¬ 
gate peaches, plums, cherries and other stone fruits, but 
not so generally for apples and pears. A good many of 
the ornamental trees may be budded readily. Among 
these may be mentioned maple, poplar and birch. 

Speaking generally, budding may be done at any time 
when the bark will peel, if the buds are well matured on 
the new growth of the season. 

If the weather is such that the stocks to be budded are 
making rapid growth, it is better to delay the work until 
the wood has hardened somewhat, or it ma}^ grow so fast 
as to cover the inserted bud before the season ends. 

About the 1st of August is the best time, and the buds to be 



Fig. i. A— Shape of incision in the bark. B—Bud ready to insert. 

C—Bark opened ready to receive the bud. D—Showing bud in¬ 
serted. E—Bud in and stock wrapped. 

inserted should be taken from the growth of same season. 

The illustration (Fig. 1) shows the process so plainly 
that it is not necessary to go into the details of the 
operation. The shape of the knife used is also shown. 

The bud is sliced off the stock with a very sharp knife, 
and inserted under the bark as shown in Fig. 2, and the 
whole is wrapped closely with a cloth, which is then 
covered with grafting-wax. 

After skill is gained from practice the wax is not 
absolutely necessary, but it is best to use it always, as it 
takes but little time and saves risks. 

It is well to remember that the bark must peel freely 
when the budding is done. The stock and scion should 

294 






















GRAFTING. 


both be healthy. The bud 
should be well matured. 
The knife used should be 
thin and very sharp. 

In selecting - the buds to 
be inserted cut off small 
branches of the tree bear¬ 
ing them and cut the leaves 
off, leaving the leaf stems 
attached to serve as han¬ 
dles to hold them with. 

The operation must be 
performed neatly and 
quickly. It will fail if the 
bud or stock gets dry on 
F the surface under the bark, 

P'ig > 2 . when the bud is removed, or 

the incision in the tree is 
opened. The inserted bud does not start until the next 
spring after it is put in. If it shrivels up in the fall after 
being inserted the operation is a failure. It is a good plan 
to insert two buds in each stock and after growth has 
begun in the spring pinch off the weaker one. 

Cut the stock off a few inches above where the bud is 
inserted, and after it has made its growth the next season 
cut the stock down as far as it is dead. 

Grafting. 

In grafting remember that the inside of the bark on 
one side at least must coincide in both scion and stock. 
If the stock is two inches or more in diameter two scions 
may be put in, one on each side. 

Fig. 3 A shows a stock ready for the insertion of the 
scion. B shows face view of scion 
and C shows shape of edge, which 
is that of a wedge. 

In this case the branch to be 
grafted is cut squarely off and the 
scions inserted as shown in Fig. 4. 

This is called cleft grafting. The 
cleft is made with a grafting- 
chisel, Fig. 5, and is held open by 
forcing into it the wedge-shaped 
end of the grafting-chisel. After 
the scions are in place the chisel 
Fig. 3 A. is removed, and the end of the Fig. 3 B C. 

295 
















GRAFTING. 


stock, and the sides as far down as the cleft goes, are 
covered with grafting-wax as shown in Fig. 6. 

This style of double scions is followed where old trees 
are to be top-grafted with new varieties. An old orchard 
top-grafted in this way with improved varieties may 
often be made of great value, where before being worked 
it produced only unsalable fruit. 



Where young stock is to be grafted other styles are 
employed. Two styles are most commonly used. viz.: whip¬ 
grafting and tongue-grafting. 

These are only applicable where stock and scion are of 



the same size, practically, and are used by nurserymen in 
preparing young trees for the nursery row. 

Some years ago grafting on whole roots was loudly pro¬ 
claimed to be the only way to secure hardy and long-lived 
trees, but the best nurserymen now claim that what is 
known as piece'-root grafting is the best. 

In whole-root grafting the seedlings were dug up and 
the scion inserted just below the point where the surface 
of the ground was before taking the tree up. This is 

290 









































BERRIES AND GRADES. 


shown in Fig-. 7, which also shows the way the 
scion is inserted in tongue-grafting’. 

In piece-root grafting a short piece of a root 
is taken and the scion is grafted on it as 
shown in Fig. 8, which also shows how whip¬ 
grafting is done. 

Either style may be used in both whole-root 
and piece-root grafting. 

Grafting-Wax. 

The following is a good recipe : Six pounds 
rosin, two and one-half pounds beeswax, one 
and one-half pounds tallow. Melt slowly in a 
large kettle for twenty-five to thirty minutes 
and pour in large tub of water. Then work 
like taffy and make into balls. When it is 
put on, put in warm water. Grease your hands 
with a bacon-skin, then apply it. 

BERRIES AND GRAPES. 



Fig. 8. 


RASPBERRIES are propagated in another way. The 
black-cap varieties are reproduced from growths at the 
tips of the vines. In the state of nature the vines bend 
over, and where they touch the ground roots start out, 
and after they have grown enough to keep the young 
plant that starts up growing, the connection between it 
and the parent stem decays and the new plant stands 
alone. In cultivating these varieties the number of cut¬ 



tings is increased by bending all the tips to the ground 
and covering them with a little soil, when a new plant 
soon forms. If they do not stay in place when bent down 
the}' - can be pegged to the ground with a forked stick. 

297 










BERRIES AND GRADES. 


Fig'. 9 shows one of these new plants, the dotted line (A) 
showing the bud that will make the future vine. 

Red varieties of the raspberry are propagated from 
root-cuttings, or suckers, which spring up from buds on 
the roots. These are cut off with a sharp spade, and set 
out to form plants for growing berries for market. Fig. 
10 shows a root-cutting. 

BLACKBERRIES are also of two kinds, the “ high bush,” 
which is the common blackberry, and its improved vari¬ 
eties, and the “low bush,” or dewberry. The first is 
propagated the same as the black-cap raspberries, and 
the second the same as the red raspberries. 

All berries require, for best results, a rather moist, rich 
soil, well fertilized. Set in rows from six to eight feet 
apart, and the plants six feet apart in the rows. Where 



they are grown in considerable quantities the rows should 
not be less than eight feet apart. 

As soon as the fruiting season is over cut out all the 
bearing canes to allow the new growth, which will produce 
the crop of the next year, room to develop fully. 

The first year no mulch will be necessary, but after that 
the ground should be cultivated in the spring as early as 
it can be worked and the .mulch put on. Straw that is 
free from grain or dead leaves, corn-fodder, or spent tan- 
bark, makes a good mulch. The very best thing to use is 
clover, cut and put on green, as it is free from seeds of 
any kind and settles closely to the ground, preventing the 
soil from drying out. 

In the fall the shoots of raspberries should be kept 
pinched back to two feet, or at most three feet. This 
will force lateral branches to start out, and the more of 
these the better, for they bear the fruit. 

298 













BERRIES A AID CRAPES. 


For winter protection, raspberries may be bent down 
and held in place with one or two shovelfuls of soil. 
Begin at the north or east end of the row and dig a little 
soil out of the north side of the hill. Then press the 
plant over to the north. Bend the next one with the 
tops toward the root of the first, and so on. Fig. 11 shows 
how this is done. The snow will then protect the vines. 

Blackberries should not be pruned until the blossom 
buds appear, as they very frequently bear near the tip 
of the growth, and by early pruning the crop may be 
shortened. 



STRAWBERRIES should be set in the spring as early as 
the ground can be worked. Good, strong plants should be 
selected and the roots clipped square off with a pair of 
shears three inches from the crown. Set the plants so as 
to have the roots spread as shown in Fig. 12, when rootlets 
will grow out in a thick mat as shown in the cut. 

Do not allow strawberries to fruit the first season, but 
pinch off the flowers as fast as they appear. This will 
make the plants more thrifty Give good cultivation and 

299 




BERRIES AND GRADES. 



keep runners off until July, when they may be allowed to 
form new plants along the line of the rows, leaving 
enough to make a rather thick row a foot wide, keeping 
the space between the rows clean. 

The rows should be two feet apart, three feet from 
center to center. The new plants may be set eighteen 
inches apart in the row and allowed to fill up the space 
between with runners. 

After the ground has been frozen in the fall cover 
strawberries with a mulch four inches thick, using clean 
straw, wild grass that has been cut for the purpose, or 
corn-stalks, being careful not to cover the crown of the 
plant too deeply. 

In the spring rake the mulch from over the rows, leaving 

it close up to the plants, 
to protect them from 
contact with the soil. 

From one hundred to 
three hundred bushels 
of strawberries may be 
grown to the acre with 
good care. 

Strawberries are di¬ 
vided into perfect-flow¬ 


ered and 


Fig. 13 - 

flower. 

sepals. 


•Perfect strawberry 
A, stamens. B. 
C, petals. 


fect-flowered varieties 
with them to produce 
These are known as 
nate” and “pistillate 


Imperfect strawberry 
flower (stamens missing). 


imperfect- 
flow e r e d 
sorts; the 
first will 
bear with 
out any 
other va¬ 
riety near 
them, but 
the sec¬ 
ond must 
have per- 
planted 
fruit, 
“stami- 
imperfect- 


The pistillate or 
flowered varieties are the heaviest yielders, and it is best 
to plant them for the main crop. When this is done, every 
fourth row should be planted with staminate varieties to 
fertilize the flowers of the other three rows. The illustra¬ 
tion (Fig. 13) shows the two kinds of flowers. 

GRAPES are propagated by layering usually, though a 

300 * 


BERRIES AND GRADES. 


large proportion of cuttings will grow if cut off in the 
fall and buried so that but one bud at the tip shows above 
ground. 



The process of layering is shown plainly in Fig. 14, the 
horizontal dotted line showing the surface of the ground 
and tne vertical ones points at which the new vines are 
cut apart when rooted. 

GOOSEBERRIES are propagated from cuttings and by 
hilling up around the bush, as shown 
in Fig. 15, the dotted line showing 
the shape in which the soil is 
hilled up. This is done late in the 
summer, and the next spring the 
soil may be raked away and the cut¬ 
tings struck from the main plant, 
as each will have roots of its own 
by that time. 

CURRANTS grow readily from 
cuttings taken any time after the 
leaves fall and before they start 
again. They may be also layered during the summer and 
will make roots. This is shown in Fig. 16, the dotted line 
being the surface of the soil. 




[3011 


























BOOKKEEPING ON THE FARM. 

9 


ARMERS, as a class, are very negligent about keep¬ 



ing accounts by which they can tell how much they 


are making or losing from year to year. The reason 
for this, no doubt, is because most farmers have never had 
an opportunity to take a course in bookkeeping, and do 
not know how to open a set of books and keep them 
properly. 

It pays, if one has the technical knowledge to do so, to 
keep the farm accounts as strictly as the books of any 
other business are kept, but there are often obstacles to 
prevent this being done. ' A short course will be here 
outlined that will be found to answer every practical 
purpose and make it comparatively easy for any farmer 
to know very nearly the exact state of his affairs at the 
end of each year, and to determine the profit or loss arising 
from his operations. Whether or not a given crop is a 
paying one is one of the things that it is most desirable 
to know, for if one kind of grain or live-stock does not 
pay it should be abandoned for something that will 
produce a profit. 

In keeping an account with a certain crop the work of 
planting, cultivating, harvesting and marketing must be 
taken into consideration and noted in a book kept for that 
purpose. The labor performed should be charged at the 
price commonly paid when such labor is hired; the use of 
the land should be charged at the common rate of interest 
on the value of the land, or at the rental that is usually 
paid in the locality, and the crop should be credited at its 
market price, no matter what disposal is made of it. If 
the crop is sold, this is the final entry in the account, and 
the balance will show whether the crop was a paying one 
or not. When the crop is used on the farm it depends 
largely on what use it is put to whether or not there will be 
a tangible basis on which to estimate its value. If it is 
fed to stock that is sold, a close estimate may be made of 
the amount received for it, but if fed to the cows kept for 
the use of the family, to the work-horses, or to poultry, 
the returns from it must be largely guess-work, and the 
better way is to credit its market value and let the returns 


302 


BOOKKEEPING ON THE PAPAL 


TABLE I. 


1889. 

THE FOUR-ACRE LOT. 

Di 

\ 

Cr. 

March 25 

To plowing, man 2 days. 

$ 2 

50 

$ 


4 4 

“ team 2 “ . 

2 

5 ° 



April 22 

“ Harrowing, 1 day, man and team. 

2 

50 



“ 29 

“ Marking, 3 hours. 


72 



4 4 4 4 

“ Planting, 30 cts per acre. 

1 

20 



4 4 4 4 

“ y bush. Learning corn. 

1 

00 



May 11 

“ Cultivating, y z day, man and team... 

1 

25 



“ 12 

“ Hoeing and weeding, 1 day. 

1 

25 



“ 18 

“ Cultivating, y, day, man and team... 

1 

25 



June 2 

44 44 44 44 44 44 

1 

25 



“ 14 

44 44 4444 44 44 

1 

25 



July 5 

<i u u ;c u u 

1 

25 



Aug. 15 

“ Cutting out weeds 8, hours. 

1 

00 



Sept. 12 

“ Cutting 174 shocks corn. 

3 

48 



Oct. 26 

“ Husking 405 bush, corn. 

16 

20 




Labor and seed... 

$36 

63 




‘ 4 Interest on value of land, 4 acres @ 






$100. 

24 

oo 




Total cost. 

$60 

63 




Cost per bush., 14 39-40. 






By 405 bush, corn at 36 cts. 



145 

80 


“ Fodder. 



13 

92 



— 


$159 

72 


Profit. 

$99 

-A_ 

09 




appear in the general balance sheet or annual exhibit, 
which will be explained further on. 

For the purpose of illustration the account that was 
kept with a field of corn a few years ago is given in Table 
I. With this as a model any farmer will be able to keep 
an account with any crop he grows or with any kind of 
live-stock that he may keep. 

The field with which this account was kept was on a 
farm in a very high state of cultivation, and the prices 
given are those current at the time in that locality. Inci¬ 
dentally it might be mentioned that the account shows 
the value of intensive farming. [303] 




































BOOKKEEPING ON THE FARM. 


This account was kept in a single-entry book such as 
may be bought at almost any book-store. It is not neces¬ 
sary to keep a double-entry account with a crop, for on 
the credit side there is rarely more than one entry, and at 
most but a few. The whole account may be kept on one 
page, and a page devoted to each crop. 

In keeping an account with live-stock its value at the 
time the account begins must be estimated and charged. 
The value of feed and pasture and the labor of caring for 
it is charged, and the value at the time it is sold or at the 
end of the year is credited, and the profit or loss is shown 
at a glance. 

In crediting a crop, account should be taken of its value 
on the farm and not in the market, as it costs something 
to haul it to market, no matter how short the distance 


(Table II.) DAILY JOURNAL. 


1897. 

Dr. 


Jan. 

o 

Sold 500 bushels corn (a) 18c. 

“ Hogs, 2,123 lbs., (a 34c. 

$90 

00 

u 

9 

74 

30 

Feb. 

4 

“ Cow. 

40 

00 

March 

6 

“ 2 steers, 2,277 lbs., (a) 4c. 

91 

08 

April 

1 

“ Butter and eggs. 

5 

60 

< t 

25 

u u u a 

7 

63 

i i 

28 

u u a u 

8 

02 

i i 

29 

u U U <( 

6 

44 

May 

44 

a 

6 

“ Cow. 

32 

00 

13 

15 

“ 3 bushels potatoes. 

“ 20 sheep. 

60 

63 

00 

;; 

19 

“ Butter and eggs. 

0 

79 

; 4 

24 

“ 3 steers. 

75 

00 

June 

3 

“ Butter and eggs. 

4 

68 

l 4 

10 

u u a u 

5 

01 

; 4 

< i 

“ 100 bushels corn. 

22 

00 

4 4 

17 

“ 300 “ “ . 

66 

00 

u 

24 

a a u u 

66 

00 

i1 

25 

“ Butter and eggs. 

4 

79 

u 

4 4 

“ 200 bushels corn. 

44 

00 

l( 

26 

“ Butter and eggs. 

5 

33 

u 

29 

U (( u u 

4 

89 

u 

30 

“ 250 bushels corn. 

55 

00 

July 

1 

“ 200 “ “ . 

44 

00 

u 

3 

Butter and eggs. 

Fy 

i 

58 


301 





































BOOKKEEPING ON THE FARM. 


may be. In charging live-stock with grain and forage 
this rule should be followed also, and the stock should be 
charged with the grain at the market price, less the cost 
of delivery in the nearest or usual market. 

The benefit of keeping books in this way is apparent to 
any one, as the operations of the year when reviewed 
show not only the cost of producing the usual field crops, 
but also how much they bring when fed to stock. 

Two other books should be kept on the farm. The first 
of these is a daily journal, and entries should be made in 
it from day to day as occasion arises. In this journal an 
account should be kept of every transaction involving the 
paying out or receiving of money. The increase of stock 
and yield of grain is noted at the time the fact set down 
occurs and while it is fresh in the memory. 



DAILY JOURNAL. 


1897. 


Cr. 


Jan. 

9 

Bought horse. 

$85 

00 

April 

1 

“ plow. 

35 

00 

* • 

i • 

“ harrow. 

15 

00 

.; 

<i 

“ sundries. 

5 

60 

4 4 

29 

(( u 

7 

63 

May 

0 

U U 

8 

76 

44 

13 

Paid taxes. . . 

G7 

72 

s i 

15 

Bought sundries. 

5 

14 

i i 

19 

u ii 

6 

02 

June 

3 

“ suit of clothes. 

20 

00 

4 . 

6 

“ sundries. 

4 

76 

u 

17 

11 corn plow. 

35 

00 

4 4 

25 

“ sundries. 

17 

29 

u 

29 

u u 

3 

• 

14 


305 





























BOOKKEEPING ON THE FARM. 


(TABLE III.) 

ANNUAL 

EXHIBIT 

On hand 

January 1st, 1897. 

1 

Raised during year. 

Bought during year. 

Amount paid. 

Sold during year. 

Amount received. 

Horses. 

4 

1 

1 

$ 85.00 

1 

$ 90.00 

Cows. 

3 


3 

120.00 

1 

32.00 

Other cattle... 

14 

3 

10 

140.00 

14 

280.00 

Hogs. 

12 

40 



44 

352.00 

Sheep . 

90 

30 



20 

60.00 

Hens. 

150 

200 


V 

250 

62.50 

Turkeys. 

3 

30 


i— 

27 

29.70 

Ducks. 

20 

60 

1 

1.00 

70 

21.00 

Geese. 







Wheat, bu. 

25 

119 





Oats, bu. 

175 

1200 



600 

90.00 

Corn, bu. 

400 

4800 



3600 

720.00 

Potatoes, bu... 

20 

60 





Apples, brls.... 

15 

40 





Butter, lbs. 

450 




250 

28.60 

Eggs, doz. 


1070 



917 

110.04 

Hay. 

20 

75 





Wool, lbs. 


540 



540 

70.20 

Tools. 

$350 



86.00 



Sundries*...... 








■^Including taxes, repairs, hired help, feed, food and clothing. 


The journal should be of convenient size to carry in the 
pocket and should be well made and bound in leather, and 
the entries in it should be made with a good pencil which 
will make a mark that will not rub or spread. A good 
book of this kind and first-class pencils to last a year will 
cost less than a dollar, and it does not pay to try to save 
money by trying to economize in these matters, for the 
records should be preserved from y r ear to year. 

In the second book, called “Annual Exhibit Book,” 
should be kept the yearly totals to show at a glance what 
each crop or kind of stock has done during the year. It 
should have pages about the size of those in the ordinary 
copy-books which £ire used in common schools, say Txi) 

30G 







































BOOKKEEPING ON THE HARM. 


Losses on crops. 

Losses on animals. 

Total receipts for 
year. 

Total expenditures 

‘ for year. 

On hand January 

ist, 1898. 

REMARKS. 



$ 90.00 

$ 85.00 

4 



1 

32.00 

120.00 

5 




280.00 

140.00 

13 




352.00 


8 




60.00 


100 




62.50 


200 




29.70 


3 



6 

21.00 

1.00 

5 






94 

Used 50 bu. 



90.00 


150 

Seed and feed 525. 



720.00 


700 

Fed 995 bu. 





18 

Used all. 





17 

Used all. 



28.60 



Used 200 lbs. 



110.04 








30 

None sold. 



70.20 







86.00 






567.00 



Total. . . 

. .$1,964.24 

$898.00 


Cash gain,$1,066.24 


inches, and should be thin enough to open flat, so as to 
use two pag'es for the various items at the head, leaving 
room enough after each row of credits and debits for 
remarks. 

It should be remembered that each transaction in which 
money is paid out should be credited on the journal, and 
each one in which money is received should be charged. 
If, for instance, a horse is traded for two cows, the entries 
should be made at the cash value, like this : “ Bought two 
cows, $85,” which should be on the credit side of the book, 
while on the debit side it should be entered thus: “Sold 
horse, $85,” with the date preceding. 

If butter, eggs or other produce is taken to town and 

307 























BOOKKEEPING ON THE FARM. 


traded for goods of any kind the entries should be made 
thus: 

March 27—Sold butter.$2.84 

“ “— “ eggs,. 1.02 

making the entry on the debit side of the book. Very 
few will care to itemize expenditures of this kind, and it 
will be credited on the journal thus : 

Boug'ht sundries.$4.46 

Suppose all the amount received was not traded out, 
but money was received for a part of it. In that case the 
entry of the sale would be the same, but only the amount 
received in trade would be credited in the sundry account. 

This system takes no account of the final disposal of 
money received. It presumes that the bookkeeper is 
keeping an account with himself and will take care of 
the money, or if he wastes it unwisely, as he is the only 
one interested, the loss falls on him alone. Sample pages 
from this book is shown in Table II. 

The book in which are kept the yearly totals, or the 
“Annual Exhibit” as we will call it—Table III—serves 
two purposes: It is an inventory showing the amount of 
personal property on hand at the beginning of the 
year, and it also shows the profit or loss on each branch 
of the year’s work. The exhibit is made up from the 
journal at the end of the year. The various entries are 
computed and the amounts under the heads “Total 
Receipts for the Year ” and “ Total Expenditures” added. 
If “ Total Receipts” are greater than “Total Expendi¬ 
tures” a profit has been made on the face of this exhibit. 

So far no provision has been made for the use of money 
invested. To determine what this should be, take the 
value of the land, tools and live-stock and compute the 
interest at the rate that could be got if they were sold 
and the money'placed at interest in some investment 
that was perfectly safe, like Government, State or city 
bonds, and add this amount to “Total Expenditures.” 
Also add the value of your own time, and if, with these 
additions, the receipts are larger than the expenditures, 
then a profit remains after paying interest on the money 
invested and the labor of supervision. 

To be strictly just, you should charge yourself with 
house-rent and the food produced on the farm which has 
been consumed on the farm, as these are of value and 
would cost money if it were not for the farm. 

This system of farm bookkeeping is not presented for 

808 





SHRINKAGE OF GRAIN. 


the benefit of those who understand double-entry book¬ 
keeping, but for those who have never been given any 
training in the science. 

The entries will not, on the average farm, exceed one a 
day the year through, and after one years experience in 
keeping accounts in this way the satisfaction of having 
all the monetary transactions of the year set down so as 
to be seen at a glance will be great enough to make the 
keeping of books for the farm a part of the regular 
routine. 


Shrinkage of Grain. 

Farmers rarely gain by holding on to their grain after 
it is fit for market, when the shrinkage is taken into 
account. Wheat from the time it is threshed will shrink 
two quarts to the bushel, or six per cent., in six months, 
under the most favorable circumstances. Hence it fol¬ 
lows that 94 cents a bushel for wheat, when first threshed 
in August, is as good, taking into account the shrinkage 
alone, as $1 the following February. 

Corn shrinks much more from the time it is husked. 
One hundred bushels of ears, as they come from the field 
in November, will be reduced to not far from eighty. So 
that 40 cents a bushel for corn in the ear, as it comes 
from the field, is as good as 50 in March, shrinkage only 
being taken into account. 

In the case of potatoes—taking those that rot and are 
otherwise lost, together with the shrinkage—there is but 
little doubt that between October and June the loss to the 
owner who holds them is not less than thirty-three per 
cent. 

This estimate is taken on the basis of interest at seven 
per cent., and takes no account of loss by vermin. 


A Simple Way to Ventilate a Boom .—It is well known that 
the occupant of a room in which a window is raised for 
the purpose of ventilation is very apt to catch a cold. 
This may be overcome by nailing a two-inch strip close to 
the sash on the outside. Then the sash can be raised an 
inch and a half and the outside air may come in between 
the sashes where they lap over each other, and the draft 
will not touch any one in the room, as the air rises and 
spreads gradually all over the room without creating a 
draft. 


309 



TO COMPUTE WEIGHT OE CATTLE. 


To Compute Weight of Cattle. 

The following table is compiled from two English works 
on the subject: 


Girth. 

Length. 

Renton’s Table. 

Cary’s 

Table, 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

stone 

lb. 

stone 

lb. 

5 

0 

8 

6 

21 

0 

21 

0 

5 

0 

4 

0 

24 

0 

24 

0 

5 

6 

3 

9 

27 

1 

27 

0 

5 

0 

4 

0 

34 

4 

34 

7 

6 

0 

4 

6 

38 

8 

38 

11 

6 

0 

5 

0 

43 

1 

43 

0 

6 

6 

4 

6 

45 

9 

45 

7 

6 

6 

4 

9 

48 

0 

48 

0 

7 

0 

5 

6 

64 

6 

64 

7 

*"T 

i 

0 

6 

0 

70 

5 

70 

3 

8 

0 

6 

6 

99 

8 

99 

12 

8 

0 

7 

0 

107 

5 

107 

6 


Killing Weeds. —There is no time so good to kill weeds as 
the time just before they appear. Land that is plowed 
some time just before it is planted, and cultivated several 
times before the crop is put in, is much easier to keep 
clean than it would have been if planted immediately 
after plowing. 

Preventing Babbits from Destroying Fruit Trees. —Wash the 
trees with strong soapsuds and carbolic acid late in the 
fall, and rabbits will not touch them. This also keeps 
away mice, and sheep running in an orchard so treated 
will not gnaw the bark. 

The Pulse of Animals. —The state of health an animal is 
in may be judged by feeling its pulse. In the horse the 
pulse beats 40 times a minute; in the ox 50 to 55 times; 
in sheep and swine from 70 to 80 times. The pulse may be 
felt wherever an artery crosses the bone. In the horse 
this is along the lower jaw; in the sheep the heart may 
be felt beating on the side; in cattle, over the middle rib. 

Salt for Live Stock. —Experiment in France showed that 
stock deprived of salt did not thrive as well as that given 
all it would consume. Cattle with salt where they could 
get it at all times did better than those given salt but 
once a week, though both lots had an equal amount. Salt 
assists digestion and furnishes the saline elements in the 
blood that help to keep it pure. 



VALUE OF MANURES. 


Relative Values of Decomposed Vegetables 

as Manures, 

From the Inorganic Matter they Contain. 

Inorganic matter. 


lbs. lbs. 


I 

ton Wheat Straw made into 

manure returns to 

the soil. 

. 70 

to 

136 

I 

“ Oat “ 

6 c 

( ( 

6 6 

66 

. 100 

4 6 

180 

I 

“ Hay “ 

i ( 

l C 

6 6 

6 6 

• 

. 100 

6 6 

200 

I 

“ Barley “ 

i ( 

6 ( 

6 6 

6 6 

. 100 

6 6 

120 

I 

‘ ‘ Pea ‘ ‘ 

6 c 

4 C 

6 6 

6 6 

. 100 

6 6 

110 

I 

“ Bean “ 

6 6 

6 C 

6 6 

6 6 

. 100 

6 6 

130 

I 

“ Bye “ 

6 6 

< 6 

6 6 

6 6 

. 5° 

6 6 

100 

I 

“ Dry Potato-tops 

6 6 

6 ( 

66 

6 6 

.400 



I 

“ Dry Turnip-tops 

6 6 

66 

6 6 

66 

.370 



I 

“ Rape Cake 

C 6 

6i 

66 

6 6 

. 120 



I 

“ Malt Dust 

< 6 


66 

6 6 

. 180 



I 

“ Dried Seaweed 

i i 

6 6 

66 

6 6 

.560 




— Johnston. 


Relative Value of Decomposed Vegetables 

as Manures, 


From the Nitrogen they Contain. 

One hundred pounds of farm-yard manure is equal to: 


130 lbs Wheat Straw manure 
150 “ Oat “ “ 

180 “ Barley “ “ 

85 “ B’wheat “ “ 

45 “ Pea “ u 

50 “ Wheat Chaff “ 

80 “ Green Grass “ 

75 “ Potato-tops “ 

80 “ Fresh Seaweed “ 


20 lbs Dried Seaweed manure 
26 “ Bran of Wheat 

or Corn “ 

13 “ Malt Dust “ 

8 “ Rape Cake “ 

250 “ Pine Sawdust “ 

180 “ Oak “ “ 

25 “ Coal Soot “ 

— Boussingault. 


Success in Agricultural Pursuits. 

To be successful in agricultural pursuits the farmer 
should learn the composition of the land he cultivates. 
He should understand the deficiencies of the soil and 
artificially supply them. This is the climax of agricul¬ 
tural science. To acquire this knowledge should be the 
ambition and effort of all who adopt farming as a means 
to support life and to win prosperity and happiness. We 
cannot too strongly emphasize the necessity of deep 






SUCCESS IN AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS. 


plowing - as the initial effort of the farmer. The more the 
soil is rendered friable and pervious, the more nutriment 
it will afford for the sustenance of the crop which may be 
planted upon it. When exposed to the winter’s frost and 
atmospheric action, elements latent in it will be liberated 
and easily absorbed by the hungering roots, which, 
meeting no resistance, will spread in all directions in 
search of nutriment in the form of carbon and moisture. 
No farmer will be rewarded by a propitious harvest who 
denies to his crops a sufficiency of carbonaceous and 
atmospheric sustenance. The nitrogen which most largely 
enters into the composition of air is, with hydrogen gas 
and carbon, the food of vegetables. To enable them to 
freely absorb these, the planting should be generously 
open. This will also enable the farmer to use with facility 
the cultivator for the destruction of weeds that rob the 
soil of the nutriment needed for the crop, excluding in 
addition a large measure of the nitrogen and moisture 
from the plants. 


Ropes. 


Table showing what weights hemp rope will bear with 
safety: 


Circumference. 

Pounds. 

Circumference. 

Pounds. 

1 inch 

200 

3 inch 

1800 

11 “ 

312 5 

3f “ 

2112.5 

n “ 

450 

34 “ 

2450 

If “ 

612.5 

3f “ 

2812.5 

4 “ 

3200 

2 “ 

800 

5 “ 

5000 

21 “ 

1012.5 

2£ “ 

1250 

6 “ 

7200 

2f “ 

1512.5 




A square inch of hemp fibres will support a weight of 
9,200 pounds. The maximum strength of a good hemp 
rope is 6,400 pounds to the square inch. Its practical 
value is not more than one-half this strain. Before 
breaking, it stretches from one-fifth to one-seventh, and 
its diameter diminishes one-fourth to one-seventh. The 
strength of manila is about one-half that of hemp. 
White ropes are one-third more durable. 


To Purify Cellars.— Burn sulphur in cellars occasionally, 
and things kept there will be free from mildew. Close 
doors and windows tightly before burning the sulphur, 
and get out at once after the sulphur is set on fire. 

312 




WHAT HOUSEKEEPERS SHOULD REMEMBER. 

Cf 

V 

T HAT cold rain water and soap will remove machine 
grease from washable fabrics. 

That fish may be scaled much easier by first dip¬ 
ping- them into boiling water for a minute. 

That fresh meat beginning to sour will sweeten if 
placed outdoors in the cool air over night. 

That milk which has changed may be sweetened or 
rendered fit for use again by stirring in a little soda. 

That boiling starch is much improved by the addition 
of sperm or salt, or both, or a little gum arabic dissolved. 

That a tablespoonful of turpentine boiled with your 
white clothes will greatly aid the whitening process. 

That kerosene will soften boots and shoes that have 
been hardened by water and will render them as pliable 
as new. 

That thoroughly wetting the hair once or twice with a 
solution of salt and water will keep it from falling out. 

That salt fish are quickest and best freshened by soaking 
in sour milk. 

That one teaspoonful of ammonia to a teacup of water, 
applied with a rag, will clean silver or gold jewelry 
perfectly. 

That salt will curdle new milk; hence, in preparing 
porridge, gravies, etc., salt should not be added until the 
dish is prepared. 

That paint stains that are dry and old may be removed 
from cotton and woolen goods with chloroform. It is a 
good plan to first cover the spot with olive oil or butter. 

That clear boiling water will remove tea stains; pour 
the water through the stain and thus prevent its spread¬ 
ing over the fabric. 

That charcoal is recommended as an absorbent of gases 
in the milk-room where foul gases are present. It should 
be freshly powdered and kept there continually, especially 
in hot weather, when unwholesome odors are most liable 
to infect the milk. 

That applying kerosene with a rag, when you are about 

313 


POINTERS FOR FARMERS. 


to put your stoves away for the summer, will prevent 
them from rusting. Treat your farming implements in 
the same way before you lay them aside for the fall. 

That a teaspoonful of borax, put in the last water in 
which clothes are rinsed, will whiten them surprisingly. 
Pound the borax so it will dissolve easily. This is especially 
good to remove the yellow that time gives to white 
garments that have been laid aside for two or three 
years. 

That a good agency for keeping the air of the cellar 
sweet and wholesome is whitewash made of good white 
lime and water only. The addition of glue or size, or 
anything of that kind, only furnishes organic matter to 
speedily putrefy. The use of lime in whitewash is not 
only to give a white color, but it greatly promotes the 
complete oxidation of effluvia in the cellar air. Any vapors 
that contain combined nitrogen in the unoxidized form 
contribute powerfully to the development of disease 
germs. 

¥ 

Pointers for Farmers and Others. 

Growing Peanuts .—Peanuts may be grown successfully on 
good corn land anywhere south of the northern line of 
Illinois. A sandy loam is best for them, and a small patch 
will supply a family with nuts enough for a whole year. 
Pulverize the ground thoroughly as deep as plowed and 
mark off in rows thirty inches apart. Remove the kernels 
from the shell without breaking the skin that surrounds 
them and plant two inches deep after all danger from frost 
is over. When the plants come up keep the soil well culti¬ 
vated until the flowers open. As the flower withers the 
end of the stem turns toward the ground and the growing 
nut forces its way into the soil and grows under the 
surface. A kind called Spanish produces the nuts from the 
roots something after the manner of potatoes. These 
are the best for garden culture. Two kernels should be 
planted in each hill and the crop should be due before 
frost comes or as soon after as possible. Pick off the 
nuts and dry them in an airy place, such as a barn-loft. 

Potatoes under Straw .—Large crops of potatoes may be 
grown by preparing the ground as usual and planting the 
potatoes about two inches deep and then covering the 
whole surface with a foot of straw. This will settle down 

314 


POINTERS FOR FARMERS. 


close to the ground, and the potatoes will come through 
without trouble. No cultivation is necessary, as the straw 
keeps weeds from starting and also keeps the soil damp 
and prevents it from becoming hard. Sometimes a few 
weeds will spring up, but these may be pulled out with 
little labor. This is a favorite method in many places. 

To Prevent Mosquito Bites. —Boil quassia chips in water 
and wet the hands and face with the water, allowing it to 
dry on. This will keep away mosquitoes and gnats for 
several hours.' 

Preserving Fence Posts. —Mix pulverized coal into boiled 
linseed oil until it is the consistency of paint; apply to 
fence posts and they will be proof against decay. 

To Preserve Popes from, Potting. —Make a strong solution 
of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) in water and soak the 
rope in it for four days ; then dry it. After it has dried 
soak it in strong soapsuds and again dry it. This preserves 
the rope better than tar and leaves it in a better condition 
to handle. 

A Superior Whitewash. —Take half a bushel of quicklime 
and slake it in as much water as will stand six inches 
above the lime. This forms the milk of lime, which is 
first diluted to form the whitewash of the consistency of 
cream. To this is added fifteen grains of sulphate of 
zinc, and then seven grains of common salt. Whitewash 
made in this way will not crack. If it is desired to have 
it tinted, add a little yellow ochre for cream or buff or 
a little lampblack for pearl or lead. 

Amount of Seed per Acre. —Wheat, 1£ to 2 bushels; oats, 
2 to 2£ bushels; barley, If to 2\ bushels; peas, 2 busnels; 
buckwheat, £ bushel; oats and peas mixed for hay, 1 
bushel oats and 2 of peas; millet, 1 bushel; corn, drilled, 
£ bushel; hilled, £ bushel; flax, £ to 1£ bushels; potatoes, 
12 bushels; red clover, 12 pounds; white clover, 3 pounds; 
clover and timothy mixed, 8 pounds clover, 2 of timothy; 
alsike, 4 pounds; timothy, 5 pounds; orchard grass, 25 
pounds; rape, 1£ to 3 pounds; turnips, 1 to 2 pounds; 
carrots, 2 pounds; beets, 4 pounds; onions, 4 pounds. 

If a railway were built to the sun, and trains upon it 
were run at the rate of thirty miles an hour day and night 
without a stop, it would require three hundred and fifty 
years to make the journey from the earth to the sun. 

315 


WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 


Troy Weight —24 grains make 1 pennyweight, 20 penny¬ 
weights make i ounce. By this weight, gold, silver and jewels only are weighed. 
The ounce and pound in this are same as in Apothecaries’ weight 

Apothecaries’ Weight — 20 grains make one scruple, 3 

scruples make i dram, 8 drams make i ounce, 12 ounces make 1 pound. 

Avoirdupois Weight— 6 drams make 1 ounce, 16 ounces 

make one pound, 25 pounds make 1 quarter, 4 quarters make 1 hundredweight, 
2,000 pounds make 1 ton. 

Dry Measure— 2 pints make 1 quart, 8 quarts make 1 peck, 

4 pecks make 1 bushel, 36 bushels make 1 chaldron. 

Liquid or Wine Measure— 4 gills make 1 pint, 2 pints 

make 1 quart, 4 quarts make 1 gallon, 31^ gallons make 1 barrel, 2 barrels make 1 
hogshead. 

Time Measure —60 seconds make 1 minute, 60 minutes make 

1 hour, 24 hours make 1 day, 7 days make 1 week, 4 weeks make 1 lunar month, 28, 
29, 30 or 31 days make 1 calendar month (30 days make 1 month in computing 
interest), 52 weeks and 1 day, or 12 calendar months, make 1 year; 365 days, 5 hours, 
48 minutes and 49 seconds make 1 solar year. 

Circular Measure —60 seconds make 1 minute, 60 minutes 

make 1 degree, 30 degrees make 1 sign, 90 degrees make x quadrant, 4 quadrants or 
360 degrees make 1 circle. 

Long Measure—Distance— 3 barleycorns 1 inch, 12 inches 

1 foot, 3 feet i yard, 5 % yards 1 rod, 40 rods 1 furlong, 8 furlongs 1 mile. 

Cloth Measure— 2^ inches 1 nail, 4 nails 1 quarter, 4 

quarters i yard. 

Miscellaneous— 3 inches one palm, 4- inches 1 hand, 6 

inches i span, 18 inches i cubit, 21.8 inches 1 Bible cubit, 2 1 / 2 feet 1 military pace. 

Square Measure —144 square inches 1 square foot, 9 square 

feet 1 square yard, 30% square yards 1 square rod, 40 square rods x rood, 4 roods 1 
acre. 

Surveyors’ Measure— 7.92 inches 1 link, 25 links 1 rod, 4 

rods 1 chain, io square chains or 160 square rods i acre, 640 acres 1 square mile. 

Cubic Measure —1,728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot, 27 cubic feet 

1 cubic yard, 128 cubic feet 1 cord (wood), 40 cubic feet 1 ton (shipping), 2,150.42 
cuoic inches 1 standard bushel, 268.8 cubic inches 1 standard gallon, 1 cubic foot 
four-fifthsof a bushel. 

Metric Weights —10 milligrams 1 centigram, 10 centigrams 

x decigram, 10 decigrams 1 gram, 10 grams 1 dekagram, 10 dekagrams 1 hekto- 
gram, 10 hektograms 1 kilogram. 

Metric Measures —(One milliliter—Cubic centimeter.)— 

10 milliliters x centiliter, 10 centiliters 1 deciliter, 10 deciliters 1 liter, 10 liters 1 
dekaliter, 10 dekaliters 1 hektoliter, 10 hektoliters 1 kiloliter. 

Metric Lengths— io millimeters 1 centimeter, 10 centi¬ 
meters 1 decimeter, 10 decimeters 1 meter, 10 meters 1 dekameter, 10 dekameters 1' 
hektometer, 10 hektometers 1 kilometer. 

Relative Value of Apothecaries’ and Imperial 


Measure. 

Apothecaries. Imperial. 

1 gallon equals...6 pints, 13 ounces, 2 drams, 23 minims. 

1 pint “ . 16 “ 5 “ x8 •« 

i fluid ounce equals. x ** 0 «» 2 o “ 

1 fluid dram “ . x •* •« 

316 







Kandy Metric Tables. 


The following tables give the equivalents of both the metric 

^nd common systems, and will be found convenient for reference; 

Approximate Accurate 

Equivalent. Equivalent. 

1 inch...[length].... 2 % cubic centimeters. 2.539 

1 centimeter. 0.4 inch. 0.393 

l yard. 1 meter. 0.914 

1 meter ( 39.37 inches). 1 yard.1.093 

1 foot.30 centimeters.30.479 

1 kilometer ( 1,000 meters).. % m 6 e.0.621 

1 mile. V /2 kilometers.1.600 

1 gramme.[weight]-15% grains.15.432 

1 grain. 0.064 gramme. 0.064 

1 kilogramme ( 1,000 grammes). 2.2 pounds avoirdupois. 2.204 

] pound avoirdupois. % kilogramme . 0.453 

1 ounce avoirdupois ( 437)4 grains)..... ..28% grammes.28.349 

1 ounce troy, or apothecary (480 grains). .31 grammes.31.103 

1 cubic centimeter . [bulk].... 1.06 cubic inch.0.060 

1 cubic inch..16% cubic centimeters..16.386 

1 liter ( 1,000 cubic centimeters). 1 United States standard quart... 0.94.6 

1 United States quart. 1 liter.1.057 

1 fluid ounce.29% cubic centimeters.29.570 

1 hectare ( 10,000 square meters) [surface]. 2% acres.2.471 

1 acre... 0.4 hectare. 0.40 


It may not be generally known that we have in the nickel five-cent piece of our 
coinage a key to the tables of linear measures and weights. The diameter of this 
coin is two centimeters, and its weight is five grammes. Five of them placed in a 
row will, of course, give the length of the decimeter; and two of them will weigh a 
decagram. As the kiloliter is a cubic meter, the key to the measure of length 
is also the key to the measures of capacity. Any person, therefore, who is fortunate 
enough to own a five-cent nickle, may carry in his pocket the entire metric system 
of weights and measures. 


Kandy Weights and Measures. 

One quart of wheat flour is one pound. One quart of corn 

meal weighs eighteen ounces. One quart of butter, soft, weighs fourteen to sixteen 
ounces. One quart of brown sugar weighs from a pound to a pound and a quarter, 
according to dampness. One quart of white sugar weighs 2 pounds. Ten medium¬ 
sized eggs weigh one pound. A tablespoonful of salt is one ounce. F.ight table¬ 
spoonfuls make a gill. Two gills, or sixteen tablespoonfuls, are half a pint. Sixty 
drops are one teaspoonful. Four tablespoonfuls are one wineglassful. Twelve 
tablespoonfuls are one teacupful. Sixteen tablespoonfuls, or half a pint, are one 
tumblerful. 

The Meaning of Measures— A square mile is equal to 640 

acres. A square acre is 208.71 feet on one side. An acre is 43,560 square feet. A 
league, 3 miles. A span, 10% inches. A hand, 4 inches. A palm, 3 inches. A 
great cubit, 11 inches. A fathom, 6 feet. A mile, 5,280 feet. 

Domestic and Drop Measures Approximated— A tea¬ 
spoonful, one fluid dram 4 grams; a dessertspoonful, two fluid drams 3 grams; 
a tablespoonful, half fluid ounce 16 grams; a wineglassful, two fluid ounces 64 
grams; a tumblerful, half pint 256 grams. 


The original Mrs. Partington was a respectable old lady wr.o 

lived at Sidmouth, in Devonshire,^England. Her cottage was on the beach, an J 
during a terrific storm (November, 1824) the sea rose to such a height as every 
and then to invade the old lady’s residence. The old lady persistently mopped out 
the water with such help as she could comwa-»a, firstly she was compelled to 

retreat to an upper story. 


317 






































PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS. 


Short Cuts in Arithmetic—Handy Tables for Ready Reckoning. 

To Ascertain the Weight of Cattle— Measure the girt 

close behind the shoulder, and the length from the fore part of the shoulder-blade 
along the back to the bone at the tail, which is in a vertical line with the buttock, 
both in feet. Multiply the square of the girt, expressed in feet, by ten times the 
length, and divide the product by three; the quotient is the weight, nearly, of the 
fore quarters, in pounds avoirdupois. It is to be observed, however, that in very fat 
cattle the fore quarters will be about one-twentieth more, while in those in a very 
lean state they will be one-twentieth less than the weight obtained by the rule. 

Rules for Measuring Corn in Crib, Vegetables, etc., 

and Hay in Mow—This rule will apply to a crib of any size or kind. Two cubic 
feet of good, sound, dry corn in the ear will make a bushel of shelled corn. To get, 
then, the quantity of shelled corn in a crib of corn in the ear, measure the length, 
breadth and height of the crib, inside the rail; multiply the length by the breadth 
and the product by the height, then divide the product by two, and you have the 
number of bushels of shelled corn in the crib. 

To find the number of bushels of apples, potatoes, etc., in a bin, multiply the 
length, breadth and thickness together, and this product by eight, and point off one 
figure in the product for decimals. 

To find the amount of hay in a mow, allow 512 cubic feet for a ton, and it will 
come out very generally correct. 

To Measure Bulk Wood— To measure a pile of wood, 

multiply the length by the width, and that product by the height, which will give 
the number of cubic feet. Divide that product by 128, and the quotient will be the 
number of cords. A standard cord of wood, it must be remembered, is four feet 
thick; that is, the wood must be four feet long. Farmers usually go by surface 
measure, calling a pile of stove wood eight feet long and four feet high a cord. Un¬ 
der such circumstances thirty-two feet would be the divisor. 

How to Measure a Tree—V ery many persons, when 

looking for a stick of timber, are at a loss to estimate either the height of the tree or 
the length of timber it will cut. The following rule will enable any one to approxi¬ 
mate nearly to the length from the ground to any position desired on the tree: Take 
a stake, say six feet in length, and place it against the tree you wish to measure. 
Then step back some rods, twenty or more if you can, from which to do the meas¬ 
uring. At this point a light pole and a measuring rule are required. The pole is 
raised between the eyes and the tree, and the rule is brought into position against 
the pole. Then by sighting and observing what length of the rule is required to 
cover the stake at the tree, and what the entire tree, dividing the latter length by 
the former and multiplying by the number of feet the stake is long, you reach the 
approximate height of the tree. For example, if the stake at the tree be six feet 
above ground and one inch on your rule corresponds exactly with this, and if then 
the entire height of the tree corresponds exactly with say nine inches on the rule, 
this would show the tree to possess a full height of fifty-four feet. In practice it 
will thus be found an easy matter to learn the approximate height of any tree, 
building, or other such object. 

To Measure Casks or Barrels— Find mean diameter bv 

adding to head diameter two-thirds (if staves are but slightly curved, three-fifths) of 
difference between head and bung diameters, and dividing by two. Multiply square 
of mean diameter in inches by .7854, and the product by the height of the cask in 
inches. The result will be the number of cubic inches. Divide by 231 for standard 
or wine gallons, and by 282 for beer gallons. 

Grain Measure— To find the capacity of a bin or wagon- 

bed, multiply the cubic feet by .8 (tenths). For great accuracy, add l / 3 of a bushel 
for every 100 cubic feet. To find the cubic feet, multiply the length, width and 
depth together. 

Cistern Measure— To find the capacity of a round cistern 
or tank, multiply the square of the average diameter by the depth, and take 3-16 of 



PR A C TIC A L CALCULA TIONS. 

the product. For great accuracy, multiply by .1865. For square cisterns 
or tanks, multiply the cubic feet by .2%. The result is the contents in barrels. 
Land Measure—T o find the number of acres in a body of 

land, multiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the product by 160. 
W hen the opposite sides are unequal, add them, and take half the sum for the mean 
length or width. 

Measures of Capacity —The following table, showing con¬ 
tents of boxes, will often ae found convenient, taking inside dimensions : 

24 in. x 24 in. x 14.7 will contain «. barrel of 31 J4 gallons. 

15 in. x 14 in. x 11 in. will contain 10 gallons. 

8 % in. x 7 in. x 4 in. will contain a gallon. 

4 in. x 4 in. X3.6 in. will contain a quart. 

24 in. x 28 in. x 16 in. will contain 5 bushels. 

16 in. x 12 in. x 11.2 in. will contain a bushel. 

12 in. x 11.2 in. x 8 in. will contain a half bushel. 

7 in. x 6.4 in. x 12 in. will contain a peck. 

8.4 in. x 8 in. x 4 in. will contain a half peck, or 4 dry quarts. 

6 in. x 5 3-5 in., and 4 in. deep, will contain a half gallon. 

4 in. x 4 in., and 2 1-10 in. deep, will contain a pint. 

Food for Stock* 

One hundred pounds of good hay for stock are equal to: Beets, 

white silesia, 669; turnips, 469; rye straw, 429; clover, red, green, 373; carrots, 371; 
mangolds, 368^; potatoes, kept in pit, 350; oat straw, 317; potatoes, 360; carrot 
leaves (tops), 135; hay, English, 100; Lucerne, 89; clover, red, dry, 88; buckwheat, 
78%; corn, 62 %; oats, 59; barley, 58; rye, 53^; wheat, 44%; oil-cake, linseed, 43; 
peas, dry, 37^; beans, 28. 

Number of Shrubs, Plants or Trees in an Acre. 


Distances 

apart. 

No. of 
Plants. 

Distances 

apart. 

No. of 
Plants. 

Distances 

apart. 

No. of 
Plants. 

1 

by 1 

43,560 

5 

by 

2 

4,356 

15 

by 

15 

193 

1 M 

“ l l A 

19,360 

5 

44 

3 

2,904 

16 

44 

16 

170 

2 

“ 1 

21,780 

5 

44 

4 

2,178 

17 

(• 

17 

150 

2 

“ 2 

10,890 

5 

ti 

5 

1,742 

18 

44 

18 

134 

VA 

“ 2 'A 

6,969 

5'A“ 

5^2 

1,417 

19 

44 

19 

120 

3 

“ I 

14,520 

6 

a 

6 

1,210 

20 

44 

20 

108 

3 

“ 2 

7,260 

6/4 “ 

b'A 

1,031 

24 

44 

24 

75 

3 

“ 3 

4,840 

7 

i 4 

7 

888 

25 

44 

25 

69 

3A 

“3 % 

3,555 

8 

44 

8 

680 

27 

44 

27 

59 

4 

“ 1 

10,890 

9 

44 

9 

537 

30 

44 

30 

48 

4 

“ 2 

5,445 

10 

44 

10 

435 

40 

44 

40 

27 

4 

“ 3 

3,630 

11 

44 

11 

360 

50 

44 

50 

17 

4 

“ 4 

2,722 

12 

44 

12 

302 

60 

44 

60 

12 

4 'A 

“ 4 A 

2,151 

13 

• 4 

13 

257 

66 

44 

66 

10 

5 

“ 1 

8.712 

14 

44 

14 

222 






The city of Ghent, Belgium, stands on twenty-six islands, con¬ 
nected with "each other by eighty bridges. The city of Venice is built on eighty 
islands, connected by nearly 400 bridges. In Venice canals serve for streets and 
gondolas for carriages. 

Bricks and common pottery ware owe their red color to the 
iron naturally contained in the clay of which they are formed, the iron, by the ac¬ 
tion of the heat, being converted into red oxide of iron. Some varieties of clay, like 
that found near Milwaukee, contain little or no iron, and bricks made from such clay 
are consequently of a light yellow color. 


319 



















Quantity of Seeds Required for Planting 1 


Asparagus. 

Beet. 

Carrot. 

Cabbage... 
Cauliflower 

Celery. 

Egg plant. 

Endive. 

Lettuce.... 

Okra. 

Onion. 

Parsnip.... 

Radish. 

Salsify. 

Spinach ... 
Tomato.... 
Turnip. 


Seeds, per 

ounce. 

Length of 

Drill, per oz. 

Vitality. 

Years. 

J,000 

to 

1,200 

50 feet 

4 

to 

6 

1,200 

to 

1,500 

100 “ 

6 

a 

8 

20,000 

to 

24,000 

200 “ 

1 

44 

3 

8,000 

to 

12,000 

Transplant 

4 


6 

50,000 

to 

60,000 

Transplant 

3 

« t 

5 

5,000 

to 

6,000 

Transplant 

5 

44 

6 

20,000 

to 

24,000 

Transplant 

8 

44 

10 

25,000 

to 

30,000 

400 feet 

5 

44 

6 

500 

to 

600 

50 “ 

5 

44 

6 

7,000 

to 

8,000 

200 " 

1 

44 

2 

5.000 

to 

6,000 

200 “ 

1 

44 

2 

3,000 

to 

4,000 

100 “ 

4 

44 

5 

2,500 

to 

3,000 

100 “ 

4 

44 

5 

2,000 

to 

3,000 

100 “ 

4 

44 

5 

About 

20,000 

Transplant 

4 

44 

5 

8,000 

to 

12,OOP 

200 feet 

6 


7 


Number of Pounds to the Bushel, Legal Weight, in the 

©ifferent States. 


States. 

| Wheat. 

6 

>> 

Pi 

| Oats. 

| Barley. 

| Buckwheat. 

Shelled 

Corn. 

Corn on 
the Cob. 

Corn Meal. 

Potatoes. 

Sweet 

Potatoes. 

Onions. 

Beans. 

Peas. 

Dried 

Apples. 

Anthracite 

Coal. 

Arkansas.. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

t t • » 

70 

50 

60 

50 

57 

60 

46 

24 

80 


65 

54 

32 

50 

40 

52 










Connecticut....... 

60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 

• • • • 

50 

60 

t • • * 

50 

60 

60 

• • • • 


Georgia.. 

60 

56 

32 

47 

52 

56 

70 

48 

60 

55 

57 

60 

60 

24 

80 

Illinois. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 

70 

48 

60 

55 

57 

60 

• • • • 

24 

80 

Indiana... .. 

60 

56 


48 

50 

56 

68 

50 

60 


48 

60 


25 



60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 

70 


60 

46 

57 

60 


24 

80 


60 

56 

32 

48 

50 

56 

70 

50 

60 

50 

57 

60 


24 

80 

. T .. .. 

Kentucky . 

60 

56 

32 

47 

55 

55 

70 

50 

60 

55 

57 

60 

60 

24 

76 


60 

50 

3C 

48 

48 

56 


50 

60 


52 

64 

60 




60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 


50 

60 

56 

52 





Michigan . 

60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 

70 

50 

60 

56 

54 

60 

60 

22 

e. •• O 


60 

56 

32 

48 

42 

56 



60 

.... 






Missouri . 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 

• • • • 

.... 

L 

• • • • 

o7 

60 

• • • • 

24 

• • • • 


60 

56 

32 


( t 

CA 


£0 

60 



60 

60 



4MCW lldllipbUUCt « 

60 

56 

30 

48 

50 

56 



60 

54 

57 

60 

60 

*25 

• • • • 


60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 



60 



62 

60 


North Carolina. . . 

60 

56 

50 

48 

50 

54 

.... 

46 




50 



QJdo . 

60 

56 

33 

48 

50 

56 

70 

.... 

60 

50 

50 

60 

60 

22 



60 

56 

32 

47 

48 

56 



56 









56 

32 

48 


56 


50 

60 


50 





Sfmth Carolina.... 

60 

56 

33 

48 

56 

56 

70 

50 

60 

50 

57 

60 

60 

26 


Tennessee . 

• • 

56 

32 

48 

50 

56 

72 

50 

60 

50 

56 

60 

60 

26 



6C 

56 

32 

48 

46 

52 



60 


56 

60 

60 



Virginia . 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 

70 

50 

60 

” 56 * 

57 

60 

60 

28 

80 

Wisconsin . 

60 

56 

32 

48 

50 

56 

70 

• • * * 

60 


50 

60 

. . . . 

28 

• • • • 


Ants never sleep. Emerson mentions this as “a recently ob* 
served fact.” 


320 




































































































































Barbed Wire Required for Fences* 

Estimated number of pounds of barbed wire required to fence 
space or distances mentioned, with one, two or three lines of 
wire, based upon each pound of wire measuring one rod ( 16 % 


feet). 

i Line. 2 Lines. 3 Lines. 

i square acre. 50% lbs. 101% lbs. 152 lbs. 

1 side of a square acre. 12;% lbs. 25 % lbs. 38 lbs. 

1 square half-acre. 36 lbs. 72 lbs. 108 lbs. 

1 square mile.1280 lbs. 2560 lbs. 3840 lbs. 

1 side of a square mile. 320 lbs. 640 lbs. 960 lbs. 

1 rod in length. 1 lb. 2 lbs. 3 lbs. 

100 rods in length. 100 lbs. 200 tbs. 300 lbs. 

100 feet in length.6 1-16 lbs. 12% lbs. 18 3-16 lbs. 


To Measure Corn or Similar Commodity on a Floor 
—-Pile up the commodity in the form of a cone; find the diameter 
in feet; multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the 
product by one-third the height of the cone in feet; from this last 
product deduct one-fifth of itself, or multiply it by .803564, and 
the result will be the number of bushels. 

Contents of Fields and Lots— An acre is 43,560 square 
feet. The following table will assist farmers in making an ac¬ 
curate estimate of the amount of land in different fields under 
cultivation: '' 


10 rods 

X 16 rods = 

1 

A. 

100 ft. x 108* 

ft. 

= H ■ 

8 

<< 

X 20 “ = 

1 

66 

25 “ 

X 100 

66 

= .0574 

5 

66 

X 32 “ = 

1 

66 

25 “ 

x no 

66 

= .0631 

4 

u 

X 40 “ = 

1 

66 

25 “ 

X 120 

66 

= .0688 

5 yards X 968 “ = 

1 

66 

25 “ 

X 125 

66 

= .0717 

10 

u 

X 484 yds = 

1 

66 

25 “ 

X 150 

66 

= .109 

20 

u 

X 242 “ = 

1 

66 

2178 square feet 


= .05 

40 

a 

X 121 “ = 

1 

66 

4356 

(( a 


= .10 

80 

u 

X 60% “ = 

1 

66 

6534 

a a 


= .15 

70 

u 

X 69% “ = 

1 

66 

8712 

U (« 


= .20 

220 feet 

X 198 feet = 

1 

66 

10890 

a u 


= .25 

440 

u 

X 99 “ = 

1 

66 

13068 

a « 


= .30 

110 

u 

X 369 “ = 

1 

66 

15246 

a «< 


= .35 

60 

u 

X 726 “ = 

1 

66 

17424 

a a 


= .40 

120 

u 

X 363 “ = 

1 

66 

19603 

a a 


= .45 

240 

66 

x 181 % ft. = 

1 

66 

21780 

a a 


= .50 

200 

66 

X 108* “ = 

% 

66 

32670 

a a 


= .75 

100 

66 

X 145* “ = 

K 

66 

34848 

a a 


= .80 


A. 


There is a lake of pitch in the island of Trinidad, about a mile 

and a half in circumference. While the asphaltum near the shores is sufficiently 
hard at most seasons to sustain men and quadrupeds, it grows soft and warm toward 
the center, and there it is in a boiling state. 

321 















GRADE PER HILE, TIMBER, ETC. 


Grade per Mile— The following table will show the grade 
per mile as thus indicated: 

An inclination of— 


1 foot in 15 is 352 feet per mile 
1 “ 20 is 264 “ “ 

1 “ 25 is 211 “ “ 

1 “ 30 is 176 “ « 

1 “ 35 is 151 “ “ 


1 foot in 40 is 132 feet per mile 

1 “ 50 is 106 “ 

1 “ 100 is 53 “ 

1 “ 125 is 42 “ 



To Find the Quantity of Lumber in 
a Log —Multiply the diameter in inches at 
the small end by one-half the number of 
inches, and this product by the length of the 
log in feet, which last product divide by 12. 

Example. How many feet of lumber can 
be made from a log 30 inches in diameter and 
14 feet long? 

30 X — 450 X 14 = 6300 -f- 12 = 525 


feet. Ans. 

To Tell the Soundness of Timber —Apply the ear to 
the middle of one of the ends, while another party strikes the 
other end. The blow will be clearly and distinctly heard, how¬ 
ever long the beam may be, if the wood is sound and of good 
quality, but if decay has set in, the sound will be muffled and in¬ 
distinct. The toughest part of a tree will always be found on 
the side next the north. 

The Number of Cubic Feet in a Round Log of Uni¬ 
form Diameter —Square the diameter, in inches, multiply by .7854, and multiply 
this product by the length in feet, divide by 144, and the quotient is the number 
of cubic feet. 


Number of Cubic Feet in the Trunk of a Standing 

Tree —Find the circumference in inches, divide by 3.1416, square the quotient, 
multiply by the length in feet, divide by 144, deduct about one-tenth for thickness of 
bark, and the result will be, approximately, the number of cubic feet. 


Following are some curious facts about fishes. While natural¬ 
ists have generally accepted Cuvier’s view that the existence of fishes is silent, 
emotionless and joyless, recent observations tend to show that many fishes emit 
vocal sounds. The anabas scandens, the climbing perch of India, quits the water 
and wanders over banks for considerable distances, and is even said to climb trees 
and bushes. At Tranquebar, Hindoostan, may be seen the strange spectacle of fish 
and shell-fish dwelling high on lofty trees. The perch there climbs up tall fan-palms 
in pursuit of certain shell-fish which form his favorite food. Covered with viscid 
slime, he glides smoothly over the rough bark. Spines, which he may sheathe and 
unfold at will, serve him like hands to hang by, and with the aid of side fins and a 
powerful tail he pushes himself upward. One species of fish, the sticklebacks, are 
known to build nests. There are several varieties of this fish, all natives of fresh 
water with one or two exceptions. They are found in the Ottawa River. The 
cyprinodon is a sightless fish which gropes in the dreary waters of the Mammoth 
Cave of Kentucky. 

Abraham’s purchase of the cave of Machpelah is the first re¬ 
corded commercial transaction. 













BOARD AND PLANK MEASUREMENT AT SIGHT. 

This table gives the square feet and inches in boards or planks from 3 to 25 "inches wide, and 4 to 
20 feet long. If a board be longer than 20 feet, or wider than 25 inches, unite two of the numbers. 


1 * 

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323 


Explanation. —To ascertain the number of feet, multiply the number of feet in length by the 
number of inches in width, and divide the product by 12 ; the result will be the number in feet and 
inches. Thus, multiply 9 inches wide by 26 feet long, and the result will be 234. Divide this by *3 
and we have the product 19 feet and 6 inches. 







































































































Scantling and Timber Measure Redueed to One-Inch 

Board Measure. 

To ascertain the number of feet of scantling or timber, say 18 feet long and 2 by 
3 inches: Find 2 by 3 in the top columns, and 18 in the left hand column, and under 
2 by 3 and against 18 is 9 feet. If the scantling is longer than contained in the 
table,'add two lengths together. If shorter, take part off same length. 


+3 

<v 

THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 

fcn 

2x2 

2x3 

2x4 

2x5 

2x6 

2x7 

2x8 

2x9 

3x3 

3x4 

3x5 

3x6 

3x7 

3x8 

3x9 

4x4 

6 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

4.6 

6. 

7.6 

9. 

10.6 

12. 

13.6 

8. 

7 

2.4 

3.6 

4.8 

5.10 

7. 

8.2 

9.4 

10.6 

5.3 

7. 

8.9 

10.6 

12.3 

14. 

15.9 

9.4 

8 

2.8 

4. 

5.4 

6.8 

8. 

9.4 

10.8 

12. 

6. 

8. 

10. 

12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

10. 

9 

3. 

4.6 

6. 

7.6 

9. 

10.6 

12 . 

13.6 

6.9 

9. 

11.3 

13.6 

15.9 

18. 

20.3 

12. 

10 

3.4 

5. 

6.8 

8.4 

10. 

11.8 

13.5 

15. 

7.6 

10. 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20. 

22.6 

13.4 

11 

3.8 

5.6 

7.4 

9.2 

11. 

12.10 

14.8 

16.6 

8.3 

11. 

13.9 

16.6 

19.3 

22. 

24.9 

14.8 

12 

4. 

6. 

8. 

10. 

12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

9. 

12 . 

15. 

18. 

21 . 

24. 

27. 

16. 

13 

4 4 

6.6 

8.8 

10.10 

13. 

15.2 

17.4 

19.6 

9.9 

13. 

16.3 

19.6 

22.9 

26. 

29.3 

17.4 

14 

4.8 

7. 

9.4 

11.8 

14. 

16.4 

18.8 

21. 

10.6 

14. 

17.6 

21 . 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

18.8 

15 

5. 

7.6 

10. 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20. 

22.6 

11.3 

i5. 

18.9 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.9 

20. 

16 

5.4 

8. 

10.8 

13.4 

16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

12 

i6. 

20 . 

24. 

23. 

32. 

36. 

21.4 

17 

5.8 

8.6 

11.4 

14.2 

17. 

19.10 

22.8 

25.6 

i2.9 

17. 

21.3 

25.6 

29.9 

34. 

38.3 

22.8 

18 

6. 

9. 

12. 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

13.6 

18. 

22.6 

27. 

31.6 

36. 

40.6 

24. 

19 

6.4 

9.6 

12.8 

15.10 

19. 

22.2 

25.4 

28.6 

14-3 

19. 

23.9 

28.6 

33.3 

38. 

42.9 

24.4 

20 

6.8 

10 . 

13.4 

16.8 

20 . 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

15. 

20 . 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

26.8 

21 

7. 

10.6 

14. 

17.6 

21 . 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

15.9 

?l. 

26.3 

31.6 

36.9 

42. 

47.3 

28. 

22 

7.4 

11. 

14.8 

18.4 

22 . 

25.8 

29.4 

33. 

16.6 

22. 

27.6 

33. 

38.6 

44. 

49-6 

29.4 

23 

7.8 

11.6 

15.4 

19.2 

23. 

26.10 

30.8 

34.6 

17.3 

23. 

28.9 

34.6 

40.3 

46. 

51.9 

30.8 

24 

8. 

12 . 

16. 

20 . 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

18. 

24. 

30. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

32. 

25 

8.4 

12.6 

16.8 

20.10 

25. 

29.2 

33.4 

37.6 

18.9 

25. 

31.3 

37.6 

43.9 

50. 

56.3 

33.4 

30 

10 . 

15. 

20 . 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

22.6 

30. 

37.6 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

40. 

34 

11.4 

17. 

22.8 

28.4 

34. 

39.3 

45.4 

51. 

25.6 

34. 

42.6 

51. 

59.6 

68 . 

76.6 

45.4 

40 

13.4 

20 . 

26.8 

33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

30. 

40. 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

53. 


THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 


V 

&-» 

5x4 

4x6 

4x7 

4x8 

4x9 

6 

10. 

12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

7 

11.8 

14. 

16.4 

18.8 

21. 

8 

13.4 

16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

9 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24 

27. 

10 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

11 

18.4 

22. 

25.8 

29.4 

S3. 

12 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

13 

21.8 

26. 

30.4 

34.8 

39. 

14 

23.4 

28. 

32.8 

37.4 

42. 

15 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

16 

26.8 

32. 

37.4 

42.8 

48. 

17 

28.4 

34. 

39.8 

45.4 

51. 

18 

30. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

19 

31.8 

38. 

44.4 

50.8 

57. 

20 

33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

21 

35. 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

22 

36.8 

44. 

51.4 

58.8 

66. 

23 

38.4 

46. 

53.8 

61.4 

69. 

24 

40. 

48. 

56. 

64. 

72. 

25 

41.8 

50. 

58.4 

66.8 

75. 

30 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

34 

56.8 

68. 

79.4 

90.8102. 

40 

66.8 

80. 

93.4 

106.8120. 


12.6 

14.7 

16.8 

18.9 

20.10 

22.11 
25. 

27.1 

29.2 

31.3 

33.4 

35.5 

37.6 

39.7 

41.8 

43.9 

45.10 

47.11 
50. 
52.1 
62.6 
70.K 
83.4 


5x6 

5x7 

5x8 

5x9 

6x6 

6x7 

6x8 

6x9 

6x10 

15. 

17.6 

20. 

22.6 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

30. 

17.6 

20.5 

23.4 

26.3 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

35. 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

40. 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.9 

27. 

31.6 

36. 

40.6 

45. 

25. 

29.2 

33.4 

37 6 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

50. 

27.6 

32.1 

36.8 

41.3 

33. 

38.6 

44. 

49.6 

55. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

60. 

32.6 

37.11 

43.4 

48.9 

39. 

45.6 

52. 

58.6 

65. 

35. 

40.10 

46.8 

52.6 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

70. 

37.6 

43.9 

50. 

56.3 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

75. 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

48. 

56. 

64 

72. 

80. 

42.6 

49.7 

56.8 

63.9 

51. 

59.6 

68. 

76,6 

85. 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

54. 

63. 

72. 

81. 

90. 

47.6 

55.5 

63.4 

71.3 

57. 

66.6 

76. 

85.6 

95. 

50. 

58.4 

66.8 

75. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

100. 

52.6 

61.3 

70. 

78.9 

63. 

73.6 

84. 

94.6 

105. 

55. 

64.2 

73.4 

82.6 

66. 

77. 

88. 

99. 

no. 

57.6 

67.1 

76.8 

86.3 

69. 

80.6 

92. 

103.6 

115. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

72. 

84. 

96. 

108. 

120. 

62.6 

72.11 

83.4 

93.9 

75. 

87.6 

100. 

112.6 

125. 

75. 

87.6 

100. 

112.6 

90. 

105. 

120. 

135. 

150. 

85. 

99.2 

113.4 

127.6 

102. 

119. 

136. 

153. 

170. 

100. 

116.8 

133.4 

150. 

120. 

140. 

160. 

180. 

200. 


324 




































































Logs Reduced to Inch Board Measure 

Find the length of the log in feet in the left hand column, and its mean diameter 
In inches (found by adding the two end diameters and dividing their sum by two) at 
the heads of the other columns, and trace them until they meet, and the figures so 
found will express the diameter of feet board measure of inch boards the log will 
measure. 


2 

or 

CO 


O 

co 


OO 

05 

o 

rH 

CM 

CO 


to 

CO 

r- 

oo 

J 

1—1 

T—i 

rH 

rH 

r—i 

rH 

r-H 

r-H 

<M 

CM 

cm 

CM 

CM 

CM 

CM 

CM 

CM 

V 

S 

a 

B 

a 

B 

R 

B 

B 

a 

B 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

• 

a 


d 

d 

d 

d 

Cl 

d 

a 

a 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

•4 

5 

S 

Q 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

A 

d 

Q 

d 

d 

0 

d 

0 

d 

10 

49 

61 

72 

89 

99 

116 

133 

150 

175 

190 

209 

235 

252 

287 

313 

342 

363 

11 

54 

67 

79 

98 

109 

127 

147 

165 

192 

209 

230 

259 

278 

315 

344 

377 

400 

12 

59 

73 

86 

107 

119 

139 

160 

180 

210 

228 

251 

283 

303 

344 

373 

411 

436 

13 

64 

79 

93 

116 

129 

150 

173 

195 

227 

247 

272 

306 

328 

373 

408 

445 

473 

14 

69 

85 

100 

125 

139 

162 

187 

210 

245 

266 

292 

330 

353 

401 

439 

479 

509 

15 

74 

91 

107 

134 

149 

173 

200 

225 

262 

285 

313 

353 

379 

430 

469 

514 

545 

16 

79 

97 

114 

142 

159 

185 

213 

240 

280 

304 

334 

377 

404 

459 

500 

648 

582 

17 

81 

103 

122 

151 

168 

196 

227 

255 

297 

323 

355 

400 

429 

478 

531 

582 

618 

18 

88 

109 

129 

160 

178 

208 

240 

270 

315 

342 

376 

424 

454 

516 

562 

616 

654 

19 

93 

116 

136 

169 

188 

219 

253 

285 

332 

361 

397 

447 

480 

545 

594 

650 

692 

20 

98 

122 

143 

178 

198 

232 

267 

300 

350 

380 

418 

470 

505 

573 

625 

684 

728 

21 

103 

12S 

150 

187 

208 

243 

280 

315 

368 

399 

439 

495 

530 

602 

656 

719 

764 

22 

108 

134 

157 

196 

218 

255 

293 

330 

385 

418 

460 

518 

555 

631 

688 

753 

800 

23 

113 

140 

164 

205 

228 

266 

307 

345 

403 

437 

480 

542 

581 

659 

719 

787 

837 

24 

118 

146 

172 

214 

238 

278 

320 

360 

420 

456 

501 

566 

606 

688 

750 

821 

873 

25 

123 

152 

179 

223 

248 

289 

333 

375 

438 

475 

522 

589 

631 

717 

781 

856 

910 




o 

rH 

CM 

co 


to 

CO 


OO 

O 

o 

rH 

CM 

CO 

4-> 

CM 

eo 

co 

co 

CO 

CO 

CO 

eo 

CO 

CO 

co 



TT 


V 

<L> 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

• 

rH 

d 

d 

d « 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d • 

d 


d 

d 

5 

o 

Q 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

S 

d 

d 

d 

10 

3S1 

411 

448 

460 

490 

500 

547 

577 

644 

669 

700 

752 

795 

840 

872 

u 

419 

451 

448 

506 

539 

550 

602 

634 

708 

734 

770 

828 

874 

924 

959 

12 

457 

493 

532 

552 

588 

600 

657 

692 

772 

801 

840 

903 

954 

1007 

1046 

13 

495 

534 

570 

598 

637 

650 

712 

750 

836 

868 

910 

978 

1033 

1091 

1135 

14 

533 

575 

622 

644 

686 

700 

766 

807 

901 

934 

980 

1053 

1113 

1175 

1222 

15 

571 

616 

666 

690 

735 

750 

821 

865 

965 

1001 

1050 

1129 

1192 

1259 

1309 

16 

609 

657 

710 

736 

784 

800 

876 

923 

1029 

1068 

1120 

1204 

1272 

1343 

1396 

17 

647 

698 

755 

782 

833 

850 

931 

980 

1094 

1134 

1190 

1279 

1351 

1427 

1485 

18 

685 

739 

799 

828 

882 

900 

985 

1038 

1158 

1201 

1260 

1354 

1431 

1511 

1571 

19 

723 

780 

843 

874 

931 

950 

1040 

1096 

1222 

1268 

1330 

1430 

1510 

1595 

1658 

20 

761 

821 

888 

920 

980 

1000 

1095 

1152 

1287 

1335 

1400 

1505 

1590 

1679 

1745 

21 

800 

863 

932 

966 

1029 

1050 

1150 

1210 








22 

838 

904 

976 

1012 

1078 

1100 

1204 

1268 








23 

876 

945 

1021 

1058 

1127 

1150 

1259 

1322 








24 

914 

986 

1065 

1104 

1176 

1200 

|1314 

1380 








25 

952 

1027 

1109 

1150 

1225 

1250 

11369 

1438 









The Falls of Niagara have cut a channel through the solid 

rocks 200 feet deep, 1,200 to 2,000 feet wide and seven miles long. The evidence 
is conclusive that the falls were formerly at Queenstown, seven miles below their 
present situation. It has been shown that they have receded not more than a foot a 
year for the past half century. 

Alexander the Great was born in Europe, died in Asia, 

and was buried in Africa. The preparations for his funeral consumed two years’ 
time. The immense car containing the golden sarcophagus was drawn by sixty- 
four white mules, richly caparisoned, a distance of a thousand miles—from the 
Euphrates to the N ile. 

325 

















































































*Tafo1e For Gold Miners. 

To ascertain the quantity of gold in any bulk of ore it is nof 
necessary to reduce the mass. A proportional reduction will 
suffice, and the following table js based on trials of four hundred 
grains of ore: 


If 400 Grains 
or Ore give 
Fine Gold, 

One Ton of 

Ore 

Will Yield 

Grains. 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

.001. 

0 

1 

15 

.002. 

0 

3 

6 

.003 . 

0 

4 

21 

.004. 

0 

6 

12 

.005. 

0 

8 

4 

.006 . 

0 

9 

19 

.007. 

0 

11 

10 

.008. 

0 

13 

1 

.009. 

0 

14 

16 

.010. 

0 

16 

8 

.020. 

1 

12 

16 

.030. 

2 

9 

0 

.040 . 

3 

5 

8 

.050. 

4 

1 

16 

.060. 

4 

18 

0 

.070 . 

5 

14 

8 

.080. 

6 

10 

16 

.090. 

7 

7 

0 

.100. 

8 

3 

8 


If 400 Grains 
of Ore give 
Fine Gold, 

One Ton of 

Ore 

Will Yield 

Grains. 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

.200 . 

16 

6 

16 

.300 . 

24 

10 

0 

.400 . 

32 

13 

8 

.500 . 

40 

16 

16 

.600 . 

49 

0 

0 

.700 . 

57 

3 

8 

.800 . 

65 

6 

16 

.900 . 

73 

10 

0 

1.000 . 

81 

13 

8 

2.000 . 

163 

16 

16 

3.000 . 

245 

0 

0 

4.000 . 

326 

13 

8 

5.000 . 

408 

6 

16 

6.000 . 

490 

0 

0 

7.000 . 

570 

13 

8 

8.000 . 

653 

6 

16 

9.000 . 

735 

0 

0 

10.000 . 

816 

13 

8 

20.000 _ 

1633 

6 

16 


The sayings of the Seven Wise Men are the famous mottoes 
inscribed in the temple of Apollo at Delphi: Solon of Athens—"Know thyself.’ 
Chilo of Sparta—"Consider the end.” Thales of Miletus—"Suretyship is the pre¬ 
cursor of ruin.” Bias of Priene—"Most men are bad.” Cleobulus of Lindus— 
"Avoid excess.” Pittacus of Mitylene—“Know thy opportunity.” Periander of 
Corinth—"Nothing is impossible to industry.” 

The “Wandering Jew” was last seen in the seventeenth cen¬ 
tury. On January 1, 1644, he appeared at Paris and created a great sensation 
among all ranks. He claimed to have lived sixteen hundred years and to have 
traveled through all regions of the world. He was visited by many prominent per¬ 
sonages, and no one could accost him in a language of which he was ignorant. He 
replied readily and without embarrassment to any questions propounded, and he was 
never confounded by any amount of cross-questioning. He seemed familiarwith the 
history of persons and events from the time of Christ, and claimed an acquaintance 
with all the celebrated characters of sixteen centuries. Of himself he said that he 
.was usher of the court of judgment in Jerusalem, where all criminal cases were 
tried at the time of our Saviour; that his name was Michab Ader; and that for thrust¬ 
ing Jesus out of the hall with these words, "Go, why tarriest thou? ” the Messiah 
answered him, "I go, but tarry thou till I come,” thereby condemning him to live 
till the day of judgment. The learned looked upon him as an impostor or mad¬ 
man, yet took their departure bewildered and astonished. 

326 
























































NAILS AND SPIKES. 

SIZE, LENGTH AND NUMBER TO POUND. 


ORDINARY. 



Length. 


Size. 

Inches. 

No. to Lb. 

2 J . . 

... *... 

...716 

3 fine. .LAr.. 

...588 

3 .. 


...448 

4 .. 

...IK-.. 

...336 

5 .. 

...iK... 

...216 

6 .. 

...2 .. 

...166 

7 .. 


...118 

8 .. 

...2K.. 

...94 

10 .. 

12 .. 

...2K.. 

...72 

...50 

20 .. 

...3K... 

...32 

30 .. 

...4K-. 

...20 

40 .. 

...4K... 

...17 

50 .. 

...5 .. 

...14 

60 .. 

* 


...10 


LIGHT. 


4 d .. 

...IK-.. 

...373 

5 .. 

...IK--. 

...272 

6 .. 

...2 ... 

...196 


BRADS. 


6 d .. 

...2 ... 

...163 

8 .. 

...2K... 

...96 

10 . . 

...2K... 

...74 

12 .. 

...3 K... 

...50 



CLINCH. 


FINISHING. 


Length 



Length 


Inches. 

N o. to Lb. 

Size. 

Inches. No. to Lb. 

2 . 

.152 

4*. 

....IK.... 

.384 

2K- 

.133 

5 . 

— iK — 

.256 

2K- 

. 92 

6 . 

....2 .... 

.204 

2K. 

. 72 

8 . 

....2 

.102 

3 . 

. 60 

10 . 

....3 .... 

. 80 

3K- 

.43 

12 . 

....3%.... 

. 65 


FENCE. 

20 . 

....3%.... 

. 46 

o 

. 96 

. 66 

. 56 

, 50 


CORE. 


2 K- 

2 K- 

m ■ 

3 

6 d . 
8 . 

10 . 

....2 .... 
....2K-... 
-...2K.... 

.143 
. 68 
. 60 

. 40 

12 . 

....3K.... 

. 42 


20 . 

....3K.... 

. 25 


SPIKES. 

30 . 

.... 4K.... 

. 18 

3 K- 

. 19 

40 . 

....4K ... 

. 14 

4 . 

. 15 




4K- 

. 13 

W 

H 2 &.... 

. 69 

5 . 

. 10 

W H L2K- • • • 

. 72 

5K- 
6 . 

. 9 

. 7 

od 

SLATE. 

....IxV... 

.288 



3 . 


BOAT. 

4 . 

•••*3tV- 

.244 

1K> 

. 206 

5 . 

....IK.... 

.187 


6 . 

....2 .... 

.146 


In the above table d stands for penny. This term penny, as 
applied to nails, is generally supposed to have been derived from 
pound. It originally meant so many pounds to the thousand; 
that is, six-penny means six pounds of nails to the thousand. 


Tacks. 


Size. 

Length. 

Number 

to 

Pound. 

Size. 

Length. || 

Number 

to 

Pound. 

Size. 

Length. 

Number 

to 

Pound. 

1 oz. 

K 

16000 

! 4 oz. 

tV 

4000 

14 oz. 

I 3 

1 6 

1143 

IK 

T6- 

10066 

6 

TG 

2666 

16 

K 

1000 

2 

k 

8000 

8 

% 

2000 

18 

it 

888 

2K 

tV 

6400 

10 

H 

1600 

20 

l 

800 

3 

% 

5333 

12 

X 

1333 

22 


727 


327 

































































































































RAILROAD SPIKES 


Size Measured 
Under Head. 

Average No. 
per keg 
of 200 lbs. 

Ties two feet between centers. 
Four spikes per tie, 

Makes per Mile. 

Rail used. 

Wt. per Yard. 


360 

5870 lbs.—29)4 kegs. 

45 to 70 

5 x t 9 f 

400 

5170 “ —26 

40 to 56 

5 

450 

4660 “ —2334 “ 

35 to 40 

4 K x /2 

530 

3960 “ —20 

28 to 35 

4 x X 

600 

3520 “ —17 % “ 

24 to 35 

4 ^ x tV 

680 

3110 “ —15)4 “ 


4 X T 7 6 

720 

2940 “ —U% “ 


^/^ X I 7 6 

900 

2350 “ —11% “ 

i 16 to 25 

4 x % 

1000 

2090 “ —10 % “ 



1190 

1780 “ — 9 

l 16 to 20 

3 x% 

1240 

1710 “ — 8% “ 



1342 

1575 “ — 7% “ 

12 to 16 


RAILS REQUIRED PER MILE 

OF FOLLOWING WEIGHT PER YARD. 


Weight Tons of 2,240 lbs. 

per yard. per Mile. 


16 

lbs. 

25 tons, 

320 lbs. 

20 

44 

31 

44 

960 

44 

25 

<4 

39 

44 

640 

44 

28 

44 

44 

44 

0 

44 

30 

44 

47 

44 

320 

44 


CROSS TIES, PER MILE. 

Center to Center. No. Ties. 

1% Feet.3520 

1% “ 3017 

2 “ 2640 

2% “ 2348 

2 % “ 2113 


Weight 



Tons of 2,240 lbs. 

per yard. 



per Mile. 

35 lbs. 


55 tons, 0 lbs. 

40 “ 


63 

“ 1920 “ 

45 “ 


70 

“ 1600 “ 

56 “ 


88 

“ - 0 “ 

60 “ 


94 

“ 640 « 

65 “ 


102 

“ 320 “ 

70 “ 


110 

“ 0 “ 

SPLICE JOINTS, PER MILE. 

Two Bars and Four Bolts and Nuts to 



each Joint. 

Rails, 

20 feet long, 528 joints 

-t< 

24 

44 

“ 440 “ 

44 

26 

44 

“ 406 “ 

44 

28 

44 

“ 378 “ 

44 

30 

44 

“ 352 “ 


Nails Required for Different Kinds of Work, 

For i,ooo shingles, 3 34 to 5 lbs. 4 d. nails, or 3 to 3)4 lbs. 3 d. 

1,000 laths, about 7 lbs. 3 d. fine. 

1,000 feet clapboards, about 18 lbs. 6 d. box. 

1,000 feet covering boards, about 20 lbs. 8 d. common, or 25 lbs. 10 d. 

1,000 feet upper floors, square edged, about 38 lbs. 10 d. floor, or 41 lbs. 
12 d. floor. 

1,000 teet upper floors, matched and blind-nailed, 38 lbs. iod., or 42 lbs. 
i2d. common. 

10 feet partitions, studs or studding, 1 lb. rod. common. 

1,000 feet furring, 1 X3, about 45 lbs. lod. common. 

1,000 feet furring, 1x2, about 65 lbs. 10 d. common. 

1,000 feet pine finish, about 30 lbs. 8 d. finish. 

328 - 






















Brick Required to Construct Any Building, 

(Reckoning 7 brick to each superficial foot.) 


Superficial 


Feet 


of 


Number of Bricks to Thickness of 


Wall. 

4 in. 

8 in. 

12 in. 

16 in. 

20 in. 

24 in. 

1 . 

7 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 . 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3. 

23 

45 

68 

-90 

113 

135 

4. 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

5.. 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6 . 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

7. 

53 

105 

158 

210 

263 

315 

8 . 

60 

120 

180 

240 

300 

360 

9. 

68 

135 

203 

270 

338 

405 

10 . 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

20 .' 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

30. 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1125 

1350 

40. 

300 

600 

900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

50. 

375 

750 

1125 

1500 

1875 

2250 

60. 

450 

900 

1350 

1800 

2250 

2700 

70. 

525 

1050 

1575 

2100 

2625 

3150 

80.. 

600 

1200 

1800 

2400 

3000 

3600 

90.. .... 

675 

1350 

2025 

2700 

3375 

4050 

100 . 

750 

1500 

2250 

3000 

3750 

4500 

200 ... 

1500 

3000 

4500 

6000 

7500 

9000 

300. . 

2250 

4500 

6750 

9000 

11250 

13500 

400. 

3000 

6000 

9000 

12000 

15000 

18000 

500. 

3750 

7500 

11250 

15000 

18750 

22500 

600. 

4500 

9000 

13500 

18000 

22500 

27000 

700. 

5250 

10500 

15750 

21000 

26250 

31500 

800. 

6000 

12000 

18000 

24000 

30000 

36000 

900. 

6750 

13500 

20250 

27000 

33750 

40500 

1000 . 

7500 

15000 

22500 

30000 

37500 

45000 


Facts for Builders. 

1,000 shingles, laid a inches to the weather, will cover 100 sq. 

ft of surface, and 5 lbs. of shingle nails will fasten them on. 

One-fifth more siding and flooring is needed than the number 
of square feet of surface to be covered, because of the lap in the siding and match- 
ing. 

1,000 laths will cover 70 yards of surface, and 7 Bbs. of lath 

nails will nail them on. Eight bushels of good lime, 16 bushels of sand, and 1 
bushel of hair will make enough good mortar to plaster 100 square yards. 

A cord of stone, 3 bushels of lime, and a cubic yard of sand, 
will lay 100 cubic feet of wall. 

Cement 1 bushel and sand 2 bushels will cover 3 % square 

yards 1 inch thick, 4 square yards % inch thick, 6^ square yards inch thick. 
1 bu. cement and one of sand will cover 2^4 square yards 1 inch tnick, 3 square 
yards % inch thick, and 4^ square yards y z inch thick. 

329 

















































FACTS FOR BUILDERS 


Five courses of brick will lav i foot in height on a chimney. 
8 bricks in a course will make a flue 41ns. wide and 12 ins. long, and 16 bricks in a 
Course will make a flue 8 ins. wide and 16 ins. long. 

Twenty-two cubic feet of stone, when built into the wall, is 1 
perch. 

Three pecks of lime and four bushels of sand are required to 
each perch of wall. 

There are 20 common bricks to a cubic foot when laid; and 15 
common bricks to a foot of 8-inch wall when laid. 

Fifty feet of boards will build one rod of fence five boards high, 
first board being 10 inches wide, second 8 inches, third 7 inches, fourth 6 inches, 
fifth 5 inches. 

Useful Facts for Bricklayers and Plasterers. 

The average weight of smaller-sized bricks is about 4 libs.; of 
the larger about 6 lbs. 

Dry bricks will absorb about one-fifteenth of their weight in 
water. 

A load of mortar measures a cubic yard, or 27 cubic ft.; re¬ 
quires a cubic yard of sand and 9 bus. of lime and will fill 30 
hods. 

A bricklayer’s hod 1 ft. 4 in. by 9 in. by 9 in. equals 1,296 cubic 
in. in capacity, and contains 20 bricks. 

A single load of sand and other materials equals a cubic yard, 
or 27 cubic ft.; a double load twice that quantity. 

One thousand bricks, closely stacked, occupy about 56 cubic 
ft. One thousand old bricks, cleaned and loosely stacked, oc¬ 
cupy about 72 cubic feet. 

One superficial foot of gauged arches requires ten bricks. 

One superficial foot of facings requires seven bricks. 

One yard of paving requires 36 stock bricks laid flat, or 52 on 
edge, and 36 paving bricks laid flat, or 82 on edge. 

The bricks of different makers vary in dimensions, and those 
of the same maker vary also, owing to varying degrees of heat 
in burning. The calculations given above are therefore approxi¬ 
mate. 

One hundred yards of plastering will require 1,400 laths, 4}^ 
bus. lime, four-fifths of a load of sand, qlbs. hair, and 9 lbs. nails, 
for two-coat work. 

Three men and one helper will put on 450 yards, in a day’s 
work, of two-coat work, and will put on a hard finish for 300 
yards. 

A bushel of hair weighs, when dry, about 15 lbs. 

Putty, for Plastering, is a very fine cement made of lime 

Only. It is thus prepared; Dissolve in a small quantity of water, as two or three 
gallons, an equal quantity of fresh lime, constantly stirring it with a stick until the 
lime be entirely slacked, and the whole becomes of a suitable consistency, so that 
when the stick is taken out of it, it will but just drop therefrom; this, being sifted or 
run through a hair sieve, to take out the gross parts of the lime, is fit for use. Putty 
differs from fine stuff in the manner of preparing it, and its being used without 


BUILDERS’ ESTIMATING TABLES. 

Quantity of material in every four lineal feet of exterior wall in a balloon frame 

building, height of wall being given: 


Length of 
Studs. 

Size of Sills. 

Size of Studs, Braces, 
etc. 

Quantity 

of Rough 

Lumber. 

Quantity of 

Inch 

Boarding. 

Siding in 

sup. feet. 

Tar Paper 

in sup. feet 

8 

6 x 6 

2x4 Studs 

42 

36 

40 

74 

10 

6 x 8 

4x4 Braces 

52 

44 

60 

80 

12 

6 x 10 

4x4 Plates 

62 

53 

60 

96 

14 

6 x 10 

1x6 Ribbons 

69 

62 

70 

112 

16 

8 x 10 


82 

71 

80 

128 

18 

8 x 10 

Studs 

87 

80 

90 

144 

20 

8 x 12 

16 inches from 

98 

88 

100 

160 

22 

9x12 

centers 

109 

97 

110 

176 

24 

10 x 12 


119 

106 

120 

192 

18 

10 x 10 

2x6 Studs 

122 

80 

90 

144 

20 

10 x 12 

6 x 6 Braces 

137 

88 

100 

160 

22 

10 x 12 

4x6 Plates 

145 

97 

no 

176 

24 

12 x 12 

1x6 Ribbons 

162 

106 

120 

192 

26 

10x14 


169 

114 

130 

208 

28 

10x14 

Studs 16 inch centers 

176 

123 

140 

224 

30 

12x14 


198 

132 

150 

240 


Amount of lumber in rafters, collar-piece and boarding, and number of shingles to 
four lineal feet of roof, measured from eave to eave over ridge. 

Rafters 16 -inch centers: 


Width of 
House, 
Feet. 

Size of 
Rafters. 

Size 

of Collar- 
piece. 

Quantity of Lumber in 
Rafter and Col¬ 
lar-piece. 

Quantity of 
Boarding, 
Feet. 

No. of 
Shingles. 

14 

2x4 

2x4 

39 

91 

660 

16 

2x4 

2x4 

45 

70 

640 

18 

2x4 

2x4 

50 

79 

720 

20 

2x4 

2x4 

56 

88 

800 

22 

2x4 

2x4 

62 

97 

880 

24 

2x4 

2x4 

67 

106 

960 

20 

2 x 6 

2 x 6 

84 

88 

800 

22 

2 x 6 

2 x 6 

92 

97 

880 

24 

2 x 6 

2 x 6 

101 

106 

960 

26 

2 x 6 

2 x 6 

109 

115 

1040 

28 

2 x 6 

2 x 6 

117 

124 

1120 

30 

2 x 6 

2 x 6 

126 

133 

1200 


Comparative Strength of Timber and Cast Iron. 

Table showing the transverse strength of timber and of cast iron one 
foot long and one inch square. 


MATERIAL. 

Breaking 
Weight, lbs. 

Weight Borne 
with Safety, lbs. 

Ash, seasoned. 

175 

105 

chestnut, seasoned. 

170 

115 

Hickory, seasoned. 

270 

200 

White Oak, seasoned. 

240 

196 

White Pine, seasoned. 

135 

95 

Fellow Pine, seasoned. 

150 

100 

Iron 'cast).... 

5,781 

4,000 



















































HOW TO USE CEMENT, 


The following general rules referring to the practical use of 
cement will be found convenient for reference: 

Quality of Sand —The sand should be clean, sharp and coarse. When the sand 
is mixed with loam the mortar will set comparatively slow, and the work will be 
comparatively weak. Fine sand, and especially water-worn sand, delays the set¬ 
ting of the cement, and deteriorates strength. Damp sand should not be mixed 
with dry cement, but the cement and sand should be mixed thoroughly and uni¬ 
formly together, when both are dry, and no water should be applied until imme¬ 
diately before the mortar is wanted for use. 

Proportion of Sand —The larger the proportion of cement the stronger the 
work. One part of good cement to two parts sand is allowable for ordinary work; 
but for cisterns, cellars, and work requiring special care, half and half is the better 
proportion. For floors, the cement should be increased toward the surface. 

Water in Concrete —Use no more water in cement than absolutely necessary. 
Cement requires but a very small quantity of water in crystalizing. Merely damp¬ 
ening the material gives the best results. Any water in excess necessarily evapor¬ 
ates and leaves the hardened cement comparatively weak and porous. 

Concrete in Water —Whenever concrete is used under water, care must be 
taken that the water is still. So say all English and American authorities. Inlay¬ 
ing cellar floors, or constructing cisterns or similar work, care must also be taken to 
avoid pressure of exterior water. Cement will not crystalize when disturbed by 
the force of currents, or pressure of water, but will resist currents and pressure after 
hardening only. In still water, good cement will harden quicker than in air, and 
when kept in water will be stronger than when kept in air. Cements which harden 
especially quick in air are usually slow or worthless in water. 

Howto Put Down Concrete —When strong work is wanted, for cellar floors 
and all similar work, the concrete should be dampened and tamped down to place, 
with the back of a spade, or better, with the end of a plank or rammer; then finished 
off with a trowel, thus leveling and compacting the work. Only persons ignor¬ 
ant of the business will lay a floor or walk with soft cement mortar. All artificial 
stone is made in a similar way to that described, and, when set, is strong and hard 
as stone. 

Delay in Use —Do not permit the mortar to exhaust its setting properties by de¬ 
laying its use when ready. Inferior cements only will remain standing in the mortar- 
bed any length of time without serious injury. 

Stone and BrickWork —In buildings constructed ol stone or brick, the best 
protection from dampness and decay, and also from the danger of cyclones, is a 
mortar of cement and coarse sand. The extra cost is inconsiderable, and the in¬ 
creased value of the structure very great. Chimneys laid in this manner never blow 
down, and cellars whose foundations are thus laid are always free from atmospheric 
moisture. Cement may also be mixed with lime mortar for plastering and other 
purposes, to great advantage. 

Effect of Frost and Cold —At a temperature less than 60 degrees Fahrenheit, 
all good cement sets slowly, though surely, but if allowed to freeze its value is seri¬ 
ously impaired. In cold weather or cold water do not fear to wait for your concrete 
to crystalize. 

Damage from Moisture— Good cement is not injured by age, if carefully pre¬ 
served from moisture. Lumps in bags or barrels of cement are caused by exposure 
to moisture. They prove the originally good quality of the cement. 


The Ramphorhyncus, the remains of which have been found 

in the quarries of Solenhofen, Germany, was a curious intermediate link between 
birds and reptiles. Its tail, a singular appendage, was long, reptile-like, ani 
dragged upon the ground, while its footprints were bird-like. 

John Verrazanni, an eminent Florentine navigator, in 

1524, landed where the lower extremity of New York City is, and giving the 
natives some spirituous liquors made many of them drunk. The Indians called the 
place Manna-ha-ta, or “place of drunkenness,” and they were afterwards called 
Manna-ha-tans. 


.382 




USEFUL TABLES FOR PLUMBERS, ETC 


SI£ES AND WEIQHTS OF LEAD PIPE. 


Weight 

per 

foot. 

LBS. 

oz. 


l l A 


3 


4 


6 


15 


8 


9 


12 

1 


1 

8 1 

2 

10 


12 

1 


1 

4 

1 

12 

2 


2 

8 

3 

12 

1 

4 

1 

12 

2 


2 

8 

3 


3 

8 

1 


1 

8 

2 


2 

4 

3 


3 

8 

4 


1 

8 

2 


2 

8 

3 


3 

8 

1 

8 

2 


2 

8 

3 

4 

4 


4 

12 

5 

8 

2 


2 

8 

• 3 


. 3 

12 


CALIBRE. 


-jpj inch Tubing. 

^ inch Tubing. 

y\ inch Tubing. 

>4 inch Tubing. 

Fish Seine. 

% inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

J 4 inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light . 

Medium. 

Strong. 

AA. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong.. 

% inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong.. 

% inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light.. 

Medium. 

Strong.. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 

% inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

1 inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 

1*4 inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium . 


CALIBRE. 


*4 inch Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 

% inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 


Light.. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

inch Waste. 

Ex. Light. 

Light.. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 


Light.... 

fj thick. 
*4 thick. 
y 6 y thick. 
% thick, 
inch Waste ... 
Waste .. 
Light.. . 


y-g thick 
14 thick. 

y 5 y thick. 
% thick. 
314 inch Waste... 
*4 thick. 
y 5 y thick. 

4 inch Waste... 

Waste. . 
Waste ... 
Waste ... 

thick. 
y\ thick. 
% thick. 
4 % inch Waste... 

5 inch Waste... 

6 inch Waste... 


Weight 
per foot. 


LBS. 

4 

6 

6 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 
9 

10 

4 

6 
8 

11 

14 

17 
3 
3 

5 

9 
12 

16 

20 

5 

15 

18 

5 

6 
8 

10 

16 

21 

25 

6 

8 

10 


oz. 

12 

12 


8 

12 

8 

8 

8 


12 


Seest thou a man diligent in his business ? He shall stand 

before kings; he shall not stand before mean men.—O ld Testament. 

333 






















































































































8I2ES AND WEIGHTS OF PURE BLOCK TIN PIPE. 


3-16 in . 




34 

in . 


M “. 


and 

6 oz. 

1 

44 

.12 “ “ 16 “ 

5-16 “ . 

.5 “ 

44 

8 “ 

Vi 

44 




44 

6 “ 

1A 

44 

. Vi ;; ‘‘ 2 ;; 

\/ « 


44 

8 “ 

2 

44 

.2 “ 3 “ 

% ‘ . 

.9 “ 

44 

12 “ 





WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT OF SHEET LEAD. 


1-32 in. thick. 


1-10 

in. thick. 

. 7 

tbs. 

3-64 “ “ . 

. 2 l A “ 

% 

44 <4 

.8 

44 

1-25 “ “ . 

3 “ 

5-32 

44 44 

. IP 


1-16 “ “ . 

. 4 “ 

3-16 

44 44 

. 12 

44 

1-14 “ “ . 

. 5 “ 

7-32 

44 44 

. 14 


1-12 “ “ . 

. 6 “ 

V* 

44 44 

. 16 



WEIGHT PER JOINT OF LEAD AND GASKET FOR STREET MAINS. 




Lead. 

Gasket 



Lead. 

Gasket. 

2-inch Pipe, 3.25 lbs., 

0.050 lbs. 

10-inch Pipe, 

15 lbs., 

0.30 lbs. 

3-inch 

U 

4.72 “ 

0.075 

(4 

12-inch 

4( 

20 

U 

0.35 

44 

4-inch 

<4 

6. “ 

0.115 

44 

16-inch 

44 

25 

44 

0.45 

44 

6-inch 

44 

9. “ 

0.175 

44 

18-inch 

44 

29 

44 ' 

0.52 

44 

8-inch 

u 

12. “ 

0.250 

44 

20-inch 

<1 

43 

u 

0.60 

44 


CAPACITY OF DRAIN-PIPE. 


Gallons Per Minute. 


SlZB OF 

Pipe. 

% In. Fall 
per 100 feet. 

3-in. Fall 
per 100 feet. 

6-in. Fall 

per 100 feet. 

9-in. Fall 

per 100 feet 

12 -in. Fall 
per 100 feet. 

18 -in. Fall 
per 100 feet. 

24 -in. Fall 
per 100 feet. 

n *> 
rt v 

fa — 

.3 1 

* i 

3-inch. 

21 

30 

42 

52 

60 

74 

85 

104 

4 

44 

36 

52 

76 

92 

108 

132 

148 

184 

6 

44 

84 

120 

169 

206 

240 

294 

338 

414 

9 

44 

232 

330 

470 

570 

660 

810 

930 

1140 

12 

44 

470 

680 

960 

1160 

1360 

1670 

1920 

2350 

15 

44 

830 

1180 

1680 

2040 

2370 

2920 

3340 

4100 

18 

44 

1300 

1850 

2630 

3200 

3740 

4600 

5270 

6470 

20 

44 

1760 

2450 

3450 

4180 

4860 

5980 

6850 

8410 


The maximum rainfall Is about one inch per hour (except during very heavy 
storms)—equal to 22,633 gallons an hour for each acre, or 377 gallons a minute per 
acre. _ 


Avoid shame, but do not seek glory—nothing so expensive as 
glory.—S idney Smith. 

That this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of free¬ 
dom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the 
people, shall not perish from the earth. —Abraham Lin¬ 
coln. 


m 






















































HINTS FOR ROOFERS. 


The average width of a shingle is four inches. Hence, when 
shingles are laid four in. to the weather each shingle averages 16 
sq. in., and 900 are required for a square of roofing (100 sq. ft). 
If 4 % in. to the weather, 800; 5 in., 720; 5% in., 655; 6 in., 600. 
In hip-roofs, where the shingles are cut more or less to fit the 
roof, $% should be added to these figures. 

One thousand shingles laid four inches to the weather will re¬ 
quire five pounds of shingle nails. Six pounds of 4 d nails will 
lay 1000 split pine shingles. 

A carpenter wrill carry up and lay on the roof from 1,500 to 
2,000 shingles per day, or two squares to two squares and a half 
of plain gable-roofing. 

The pitch of a slated roof should be about one in height to 
four in length. The usual lap is about 3 in., sometimes 4 in. 
Each slate should be fastened by two 3d slate nails, either of 
galvanized iron, copper or zinc. On roofs of gas-houses the nails 
should be of copper or yellow metal. 

The sides and bottom edges of roof slates should be trimmed, 
and the nail-holes punched as near the head as possible. When 
slates are riot of uniform size they should be sorted, and the 
smallest placed near the ridge. 

In a first-class slate roof the top course on ridge, and the slate 
from two to four feet from gutters, and one foot each way from 
valleys and hips, should be bedded in elastic cement. 

Roof-boards for slate roofs should be covered with one or two 
thicknesses of tarred felt roofing paper before slates are laid. Dry or rosin-sized felt 
should not be used on roofs. 


Nnmber of Slates per Square. 


Size in 
Inches. 

Slates per 
Square. 

Size in 
Inches. 

Slates per 
Square. 

Size in 
Inches. 

Slates per 
Square. 

6x12 

533 

8 x 16 

277 

12x20 

141 

7 x 12 

457 

9 x 16 

2-16 

14 x 20 

121 

8x12 

400 

10 x 16 

221 

11x22 

137 

9 x 12 

355 

9 x 18 

213 

12x22 

126 

7 x 14 

374 

10 x 18 

192 

14 x 22 

108 

8x14 

327 

12 x 18 

160 

12 x 24 

114 

9 x 14 

291 

10x20 

169 

14 x 24 

98 

10 x 14 

261 

11 x20 

154 

16 x 24 

86 


Number of Shingles Required in a Roof. 

To the square foot, it takes 9 if exposed 4 inches; 8 if exposed 
4% inches, and 7 1-5 if exposed 5 inches to the weather. 

Find the number of shingles required to cover a roof 38 ft. long 
and the rafters on each side 14 ft. Shingles exposed 4 J 4 inches. 

28X38=1064 (sq. ft.) X8=8512 shingles. Ans. 

To find the length of rafters, giving the roof one-third pitch, 
take three-fifths of the width of the building. If the building is 30 feet wide, they 
must be 18 feet long, exclusive of projection. 

A tin roof, properly put on, and kept painted, will last thirty 

335 



















HINTS FOR ROOFERS. 

years. It ought not to be painted for the first time until it has 
been on about thirty days, so as to get the grease off the tin, and 
all the rosin should be carefully Scraped off. 

It is sometimes necessary, on buildings where there is much 
dampness or steam, as stables, blacksmith shops, round-houses, 
etc., to paint the roof tin one coat on the under side before 
laying. 

Tin roofs should be laid with cleats, and not by driving the 
nails through the tin itself. 

There are two kinds of tin—“bright tin,” the coating of which 
is all tin, that is, the tin proper; and “tern,” “leaded,” or “roof¬ 
ing” tin, the coating of which is a composition, part tin and part 
lead. This last is a little cheaper, and will not rust any quicker, 
but the sulphur in soft coal smoke eats through the “leaded” coat¬ 
ing sooner than through the “tinned.” 

There are two sizes of tin, 10x14 and 14x20, and two grades of 
thickness—IC light, and IX, heavy. For a steep roof (one-sixth 
pitch or over) the IC 14x20 tin (“leaded” if high up where little 
smoke will get to it; “bright” if low down), put on with a stand¬ 
ing groove, and with the cross-beams put together with a double 
lock, makes as good a roof as can be made. For flat roofs IX 
10x14 “light” is best, laid with cleats, but the others make good 
roofs and any of them will last 25 years at least. 

Number of Square Feet a Box of Roofing Tin Will 
Cover.—F or flat seam roofing, using %-inch locks, a box of 
“14x20” size will cover about 192 square feet, and for standing 
seam, using %-inch locks and turning 1 % and 1 y 2 inches edges, 
making i-inch standing seams, it will lay about 168 square feet. 

For flat seam roofing, using 3 ^-inch locks, a box of “28x20” 
size will cover about 399 square feet, and for standing seam, 
using %-inch locks and turning 1% and i}4 inches edges, making 
i-inch standing seams, it will lay about 365 square feet. 

Every box of roofing plates (IC or IX “14x20” or “28x20” 
sizes) contains 112 sheets. 

Facts About Gas. 

A cubic foot of good gas, from a jet one thirty-third of an inch 
in diameter and a flame of four inches, will burn 65 minutes. 

Internal lights require four cubic feet, and external lights 
about five cubic feet, per hour. Large or Argand burners will 
require from six to ten feet. 

In distilling 56 pounds of coal, the volume of gas produced in 
cubic feet, when the distillation was effected in three hours, was 
41.3; in seven hours, 37.5; in twenty hours, 33.5; in twenty-five 
hours, 31.7. 

A retort produces about 600 cubic feet of gas in five hours, 
with a charge of about one and a half cwt. of coal, or 2,800 cubic 
feet in twenty-four hours. ' [3301 



PAINTING AND GLAZING. 


Painters’ work is generally estimated by the square yard, and 
the cost depends on the number of coats applied, quality of work 
and material to be painted. 

One coat, or priming, will take, per ioo yards of painting, 20 
pounds of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Two-coat work, 40 pounds 
of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Three-coat, the same quantity as 
two-coat; so that a fair estimate for 100 yards of three-coat work 
would be 100 pounds of lead and 16 gallons of oil. 

One gallon priming color will cover 50 superficial yards; white 
zinc, 50 yds.; white paint, 44 yds.; lead color, 50 yds.; black paint, 
50 yds .; stone color, 44 yds.; yellow paint, 44 yds.; blue color, 45 
yds .; green paint, 45 yds.; bright emerald green, 25 yds.; bronze 
green, 75 yds. 

One pound of paint will cover about 4 superficial yards the 
first coat, and about 6 each additional coat. One pound of putty, 
for stopping, every 20 yards. One gallon of tar and 1 lb. of pitch 
will cover 12 yards superficial the first coat, and 17 yards each 
additional coat. A square yard of new brick wall requires, for the 
first coat of paint in oil, % lb.; for the second, 3 lbs.; for the 
third, 4 lbs. 

A day’s work on the outside of a building is 100 yards of first 
coat, and 80 yds. of either second or third coat. An ordinary 
door, including casings, will, on both sides, make 8 to 10 yds. of 
painting, or about 5 yds. to a door without the casings. An or¬ 
dinary window makes about 2)^ or 3 yds. 

Window Glass is sold by the box, which contains, as nearly 
as possible, 50 sq. ft., whatever the size of the panes. The thick¬ 
ness of ordinary, or “single thick” window glass is about one- 
sixteenth of an inch, and of “double thick” nearly ^ in. The 
tensile strength of common glass varies from 2,000 to 3,000 lbs. 
per sq. in., and its crushing strength from 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. 

Where Skylights are glazed with clear or double thick glass, 
it may be used in lengths of from 16 to 30 in. by a width of from 
9 to 15 in. A lap of at least an inch and a half is necessary for 
all joints. This is the cheapest mode of glazing. The best, 
however, for skylight purposes is fluted or rough plate glass. 
The following thicknesses are recommended as proportionate to 
sizes: 12x48, 3-16 in.; 15x60, 34 hi.; 2 °x 100 , % in.; 94x156, % in. 

Polished French plate window glass, which is the 
highest grade of window glass in the market, may be obtained 
in lights ranging in size from one inch square upwards. Owing 
to the extra cost of rolling large lights the price of these per 
square foot is sometimes double that of smaller lights. 

Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of 
things unseen. —New Testament. 

337 




PANES OF WINDOW GLASS IN A BOX OF BO FEET; 


Size, 

in inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

6 x 8 

150 

12x19 

32 

16 x 20 

23 

24 x 44 

7 

7 x 9 

115 

12x20 

30 

16 x 22 

20 

24 x50 

6 

8x10 

90 

12x21 

29 

16 x 24 

19 

24x56 

5 

8x11 

82 

12x22 

27 

16 x 30 

15 

26x36 

8 

8x12 

75 

12x23 

26 

16 x 36 

12 

26x40 

7 

9x10 

80 

12 x 24 

25 

16 x 40 

11 

26x48 

6 

9x11 

72 

13x14 

40 

18x20 

20 

26x54 

5 

9x12 

67 

13 x 15 

37 

18 x 22 

18 

28x34 

8 

9x13 

62 

13x16 

35 

18 x24 

17 

28 x 40 

6 

9x14 

57 

13x17 

33 

18 x 26 

15 

28x46 

6 

9 x 15 

53 

13x18 

31 

18x34 

12 

28x50 

5 

9x16 

50 

13 x 19 

29 

18 x 36 

11 

30x40 

6 

10x10 

72 

13x20 

28 

18x40 

10 

30x44 

4 

10x12 

60 

13x21 

26 

18 x 44 

9 

30x48 

5 

10x13 

55 

13 x 22 

25 

20 x 22 

16 

30x54 

5 

10x14 

52 

13x24 

23 

20x24 

15 

32x42 

5 

10x15 

48 

14 x 15 

34 

20x25 

14 

32x44 

5 

10 x 16 

45 

14 x 16 

32 

20x26 

14 

32x46 

5 

10x17 

42 

14 x 18 

29 

20x28 

13 

32x48 

5 

10x18 

40 

14x19 

27 

20x30 

12 

32x50 

4 

11x11 

69 

14 x 20 

26 

20x34 

11 

32x54 

4 

11 x 12 

55 

14 x 22 

23 

20 x 36 

10 

32 x 56 

4 

11x13 

50 

14x24 

22 

20 x 40 

9 

32x60 

4 

11 x 14 

47 

14x28 

19 

20 x 44 

8 

34x40 

5 

11x15 

44 

14x32 

16 

20 x 50 

7 

34x44 

5 

11x16 

41 

14x36 

14 

22x24 

14 

34 x 46 

5 

11x17 

39 

14 x 40 

13 

22x26 

13 

34 x 50 

4 

11x18 

36 

15x16 

30 

22 x 28 

12 

34 x 52 

4 

12x12 

50 

15 x 18 

27 

22 x 36 

9 

34 x 56 

4 

12x13 

46 

15x20 

24 

22x40 

8 

36 x 44 

5 

12x14 

43 

15x22 

22 

22 x 50 

7 

36 x 50 

4 

12 x 15 

40 

15 x 24 

20 

24 x 28 

11 

36 x 56 

4 

12 x 16 

38 

15 x 30 

16 

24 x 30 

10 

36 x 60 

3 

12x17 

35 

15 x 32 

15 

24 x 32 

10 

36 x 64 

3 

12x18 

33 

16x18 

25 

24x36 

9 

40x60 

3 


CARPENTERS’ WORK AND MEASURING. 


What is called Naked Flooring in carpentry are the joists 
which support the flooring boards and ceiling of a room. There 
are different kinds, but they may all be comprised in the three 
following—viz.: single joisted floors, double floors, and framed 
floors. 

A single joisted floor consists of only one series of joists; 
sometimes every third or fourth joist is made deeper,with ceiling 
joists nailed across at right angles. This is a good method, as 
ceilings stand better than when the laths are nailed to the joists 
alone. 

A double floor consists of binding, bridging, and ceiling joists; 
the binding joists are the chief support of the floor, and the 
bridging joists are nailed upon the upper side of them; the ceiling 
joists are either notched to the under side or framed between 

338 

































CARPENTERS' WORK AND MEASURING. 


with chased mortises. The best method is to notch them. 

Framed floors differ from double floors only in having the 
binding joists framed into large pieces of timber called 
girders. 

Single joisted floors, when the bearing exceeds ten feet, should 
be cross-bridged between the joists to prevent them from turning 
or twisting sideways, and also to stiffen the floor; when the 
bearing exceeds fifteen feet, two rows will be necessary, and so 
on, adding another row for each five feet bearing. 

Single joisting may be used to any extent for which timber 
can be got deep enough; but where it is desirable to have a per¬ 
fect ceiling, the bearing should not exceed 18 ft., nor the distance 
from center to center be more than 16 inches; otherwise the 
bearing for the laths become too long to produce good work. 

To find the depth of a joist, the length of bearing and the thick¬ 
ness being given— 

Rule. —Divide the square of the length in feet by the thick¬ 
ness in inches, and the cube root of the quotient, multiplied by 

2.2 for pine, or 2.3 for oak, will be the depth in inches. 

Example .—Suppose a joist whose bearing is 10 feet, and the 

thickness two inches, what will be the depth? 

Here ioX^^ioo, divided by 2, the thickness—50, the cube 
root of which is 3,684X2.2=8.i048=equals 8 inches, the depth. 

To find the scantlings of joists for different bearings from 5 
to 20 feet, at several thicknesses, refer to the table on following 
page. 

Girders are the chief support of a framed floor, and their 
depth is often limited by the size of the timber; therefore the 
method of finding the scantling may be divided in two 
cases— 

Cask i. —To find the depth of a girder when the length 
of bearing and thickness of girder are given. 

Rule .—Divide the square of the length in feet by the thick¬ 
ness in inches, and the cube root of the quotient, multiplied by 

4.2 for pine, or 4.34 for oak, will give the depth required in 
inches. 

Case 2.—To find the thickness when the length of bearing 
and depth are given. 

Rule .—Divide the square of the length in feet by the cube 01 
the depth in inches, and the quotient multiplied by 74 for pine, 
or by 82 for oak, will give the thickness in inches. 

In these rules the girders are supposed to be ten feet apart, 
and this distance should never be exceeded, but should the dis¬ 
tance apart be more or less than 10 feet, the thickness should be 
made proportionate thereto. 


389 


CARPENTERS' WORK AND MEASURING. 


Length of 
bearing in 
Feet. 

Thickness 

2 inches. 

Thickness 

2% inches. 

Thickness 

3 inches. 

o .a 

IS 

H co 

Thickness 

4 inches. 


c 

(f) 

r* <L> 

c 

2 g 

~ J3 

c 

— </5 

•C « 

.s 

,H (A 

a 

tn 

A 2 


CX p 

O. ® 

p. <J 

Q. u 

o. <j 


p - 

P •- 

p - 

P - 

p - 

5 

5)4 

4)4 

4)4 

% 

4 

6 

5)4 

5)4 

5 


4)4 

7 

6)4 

6 

5)4 

5)4 

5 

8 

7 

6)4 

6)4 

5% 

5)4 

9 

7)4 

6% 

6/4 

6 

5 7 A 

10 

8 

7 % 

7 

6 % 

6)4 

11 

8)4 

8 

7 X 

7 

6)4 

12 

9)4 

8)4 

8 

7)4 

7)4 

13 

9% 

9 

834 

8 

7)4 

14 

10 

9/4 

9 

8)4 

8 

15 

10 K 

9)4 

10)1 

034 

8)4 

8)4 

16 

n 

0 % 

9)4 

8 % 

17 

n>4 

10)4 

1034 

9)4 

9)4 

18 

12 

n)4 

io)4 

10 

9)4 

19 

12 )4 

uy 2 

io& 

10M 

10 

20 

13 

12 

n)4 

10)4 

10 H 


When the breadth of girders is considerable it is an excellent 
method to saw them down the middle and bolt them together, 
with the sawn sides outward. 

Partitions unsupported from underneath the floors should be 
supported from the walls by means of a simple truss. This can 
be made bj setting two pieces of scantling into the walls on 
either side at the floor to abut against each other at the ceiling 
or against a collar-beam over the doors. This plan will obviate 
the sinking of floors so often seen under partitions. 


Weight of Lumber, Etc., Dry. 

Flooring —Dressed and matched, per 1,000 ft 

Siding —Dressed per 1,000 ft. 

Ceiling— inch thick, per 1,000 ft. 

“ % “ « “ “ . 

Boards —Dressed one side, per 1,000 ft. 

“ and dimensions, rough, per 1,000 ft.. 

Shingles —per 1,000 . 

Lath —per 1,000 pieces . 

Pickets —Dressed, per 1,000 pieces. 

“ Rough, per 1,000 pieces. 

340 


1,800 lbs 
800 “ 
800 “ 
900 “ 
2,100 “ 
2,500 “ 
250 “ 
500 “ 
1,800 “ 
2,500 “ 



























WEAR AND TEAR OF BUILDING MATERIALS. 

The figures given below are averages deduced from replies 
made by eighty-three competent builders in twenty-seven cities 
and towns of Western States: 



Frame 

Dwellings. 

Brick 
Dwellings. 
(Shingle roof) 

Frame 

Stores. 

Brick Stores. 
(Shingle roof) 

Material in 

Buildings. 

Average Life, years. 

Percentage of Depre¬ 
ciation per Annum. 

Average Life, years. 

Percentage of Depre¬ 

ciation per Annum. 

Average Life, years. 

Percentage of Depre¬ 

ciation per Annum. 

Average Life, years. 

Percentage of Depre¬ 

ciation per Annum, 

Brick. 



75 

3 K 



66 

IK 
3 K 

Plastering. 

20 

5 

30 

16 

6 

30 

Painting, outside.... 

5 

20 

7 

14 

5 

20 

6 

16 

Painting, inside. 

7 

14 

7 

14 

5 

20 

6 

16 

Shingles. 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

Cornice. 

40 

2 K 

40 

2 K 

30 

3K 

40 

2 K 

Weather-boarding .. 

30 

3K 

, . 


30 

3K 

# , 


Sheathing. 

50 

2 

50 

2 

40 

2 K 

50 

2 

Flooring. 

20 

5 

20 

5 

13 

8 

13 

8 

Doors, complete.... 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

25 

4 

30 

3.K 

Windows, complete. 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

25 

4 

30 

3 K 

Stairs and newel.... 

30 

3 K 

30 

3 K 

20 

5 

20 

5 

Base. 

40 

2K 

40 

214 

30 

3 K 

30 

3 K 

Inside blinds. 

30 

3 K 

30 

3 K 

30 

3 K 

30 

3 K 

Building hardware.. 

20 

5 

20 

5 

13 

8 

13 

8 

Piazzas and porches. 

20 

5 

20 

5 

20 

5 

20 

5 

Outside blinds. 

Sills and first floor 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

joints. 

25 

4 

40 

2K 

25 

4 

30 

3 K 

Dimension lumber. . 

50 

2 

75 

1 K 

40 

2K 

66 

iK 


In Java the “Valley of the Upas Tree” is sometimes called 
the “Valley of Death,” and its deadly influence was formerly 
ascribed to the malignant properties of a peculiar vegetable pro¬ 
duction of the island, called the “ upas tree,” which especially 
flourishes in this locality. Recent travelers, however, declare 
that accounts of the fatality attending a passage of this famous 
valley have been greatly exaggerated. 

A man may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and 
eat of the fish that hath fed of that worm. — Shakespeare . 

341 








































Sizes of Chairs and Desks for Schools. 

Desks for Single Scholar, 2 ft. long ; For Two Scholars, 3 ft. 10 in. 


Age of Scholar. 

Height of Chair. 

Height of Desk 
(next scholar). 

Space Occupied by 
Desk and Chair. 

16 to 18 vears. 

1G& 

inches. 

29)4 inches. 

2 feet 9 inches. 

14 to 16 

it 

15)4 

it 

28 

2 

M 

9 “ 

12 to 14 

it 

15)4 

it 

27)4 “ 

2 

it 

8 “ 

10 to 12 

tt 

14K 

tt 

26)4 “ 

2 

tt 

7 “ 

8 to 10 

a 

13 M 

tt 

25>4 “ 

2 

tt 

5 « 

7 to 8 

it 

12 X 

« 

24 

2 

tt 

4 “ 

6 to 7 

tt 

11)4 

tt 

22)4 “ 

2 

tt 

3 “ 

5 to 6 

it 

10 >4 

(( 

21 “ 

2 

tt 

2 “ 

4 to 5 

it 

9>4 

it 

19 

2 

it 

0 “ 


WEIGHT OF FLOORS, AND THE LOAD UPON SAME. 

The dead weight of a fire-proof floor will average for the 
arches, concrete, plastering and flooring, 70 lbs. per sq. foot. The 
live weight, equal to a dense crowd of people, 80 lbs. per sq. 
foot, or a total for an office building of 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

The following loads are exclusive of weight of arches and 
beams: 


Dense crowd of people. 

. 80 

lbs. 

per 

sq. 

foot 

For floors of houses. 

. 50 

a 

it 

it 

it 

Theaters and churches. 

.. 80 

tt 

tt 

it 

it 

Ball rooms. 

. 90 

it 

tt 

it 

it 

Ware houses. 

. 250 

tt 

it 

it 

it 

Factories. 

. 200 to 450 

it 

it 

tt 

tt 

Snow 30 inches deep. 

. 15 

it 

tt 

it 

tt 

Brick walls. 

.112 

it 

it 

cubic 

it 

Stone (Chicago lime stone, dressed). 160 

it 

it 

it 

it 


The dead weight of a wooden floor, including wood joists: 
Double flooring and plastering will average. .25 lbs. per sq. foot 

If deafened. 35 “ “ “ “ 

Stud partition of wood plastered each side. . .20 “ “ “ “ 

In estimating the weight of a flat ceiling and roof it will be 
safe to assume the following: 

Ceiling of wooden construction. 15 lbs per sq. foot. 

Ceiling of iron construction. 25 to 65 “ “ “ “ 

Roof of wooden construction. 45 “ “ “ “ 

Roof of iron construction. 65 to 100 M “ “ “ 

The weight of roof includes the wind pressure and snow. 
Strength of Piers. —Granite will sustain 40 tons per sq. 
ft.; Berea (sand stone), 30 tons per sq. ft.; limestone (mag¬ 
nesium), 29 tons per sq. ft.; Portland (sand stone), 13 tons per sq. 
ft.; brick in cement, 3 tons per sq. ft.; rubble masonrv, 2 tons per 
sq. ft.; lime, cement foundation, 2% tons per sq. ft. 

342 































WEIGHT OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 

Weight of Stones. —Granite, (averages) per cubic foot, 170 
lbs.; limestone (magnesium), 144 lbs.; Berea (sand stone), 140 
lbs.; free stone, 140 lbs.; gypsum, natural state, 140 lbs. 

One ton of vein marble is 13 cubic feet; of statuary marble, 
I 3 Ki granite, 13^; of Berea stone, 14^3; of limestone, mag¬ 
nesium, 13%. 

Weight of Masonry. —Granite, per cubic foot, 160 lbs.; 
of Berea stone range, 140; of limestone rubble, 140; of brick, 
dry, 115; of brick, dry (press), 130; of brick, dry (fire), 150; of 
brick masonry in mortar, no; of brick masonry cement, 112. 

Weight of Marble Slabs.—O ne-half inch thick, per sq. 
foot, 7.17 lbs.; % inch thick, 10.75; 1 inch thick, 14.32; 1^ inch 
thick, 17.92; inch thick, 21.05; 1% inch thick, 25.08; 2 inch 
thick, 28.67; 2 /i; inch thick, 35.83. 

Cement and Lime. —One bushel of Portland cement weighs 
96 lbs.; of Rosendale, 70; of Louisville, 62; of quick lime well 
shaken, 80; of quick lime, loose, 70. 

Iron and Wood. —One cubic foot of wrought iron weighs 
480 lbs.; of cast iron, 450; of oak (seasoned), 48; of pine (sea¬ 
soned), 36. 

Coal. —One bushel of Anthracite weighs 86 lbs.; of Bitumin¬ 
ous, 80; of coke (Connellsville), 40; of charcoal (hardwood) 30. 

Miscellaneous Weights. —Per cubic foot: Ordinary quick 
lime, 53 lbs.; old mortar, 90; new mortar, well tempered, 115; 
new mortar, no; river sand (average), 107; river sand (screened), 
95; clay with gravel, 130; earth—vegetable, 90; earth—loamy, 
100; earth—semi fluid, no. 


San Marino, in Italy, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, is the 
oldest Republic in the world. It is, next to Monaco, the smallest 
State in Europe. The exact date of the establishment of this 
Republic is not known, but according to tradition, it was in the 
fourth century, by Marinus, a Dalmatian hermit, and has ever 
since remained independent. It is mountainous, and contains 
four or five villages. The word “liberty” is inscribed on its 
capitol. 

Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the 
price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know 
not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty 
or give me death !—Patrick Henry. 

The law is a sort of hocus-pocus science, that smiles in yer 
face while it picks yer pocket; and the glorious uncertainty of it 
is of mair use to the professors than the justice of it.— Macklin. 

Knowledge is of two kinds: we know a subject ourselves or 
we know where we can find information upon it.— jfohtison. 

343 



Crushing and Tensile Strength, in Lbs., per Sq. Inch 
of Natural and Artificial Stones. 


DESCRIPTION. 


Weight 

per 

Cubic ft. 
in lbs. 


Crushing Force. 
Lbs. per 
Square Inch. 


Aberdeen Blue Granite. 

Quincy Granite. 

Freestone, Belleville. 

Freestone, Caen.. 

Freestone, Connecticut. 

Sandstone, Acquia Creek, used for Capi¬ 
tol, Washington. 

Limestone, Magnesian, Grafton, Ill. 

Marble, Hastings, N. Y. 

Marble, Italian. 

Marble, Stockbridge, City Hall, N. Y... . 

Marble, Statuary. 

Marble, Veined. 

Slate . 

Brick, Red. 

Brick, Pale Red. 

Brick, Common. 

Brick, Machine Pressed. 

Brick, Stock. 

Brick-work,set in Cement, bricks not very 

hard. 

Brick, Masonry, Common. 

Cement, Portland. 

Cement, Portland, Cement 1 , Sand 1 .... 

Cement, Roman. 

Mortar. 

Crown Glass..... 


164 

166 


165 


135.5 

130.3 


S ,400 to 10,914 
15,300 
3,522 
1,088 
3,319 

5,340 

17,000 

18,941 

12,624 

10,382 

3,216 

9,681 

9,300 

808 

562 

800 to 4,000 
6,222 to 14,216 
2,177 

521 

500 to 800 
1,000 to 8,300 
1.280 
342 

120 to 240 
31,000 


Portland Cement. 

Portland Cement, with Sand 

Glass, Plate. 

Mortar. 

Plaster of Paris. 

Slate. 


TENSION. 

427 to 711 
92 to 284 
9,420 
50 
72 

11,000 


Error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free 
to combat it.— Thomas Jefferson. 

Virtue is like precious odors, most fragrant when they are 
incensed or crushed. —Lord Bacon. 

344 












































WEIGHT OF CAST IRON COLUMNS. 

PER LINEAL FOOT OF PLAIN SHAFT. 


THICKNESS OF METAL. 


3 

34 in- 

%in. 

34 in. 

% in. 

24 in. 

7 A in. 

2 

4.3 

6.0 

7.4 

8.4 

9.2 

9.7 

2>4 

6.5 

7.8 

9.8 

11.5 

12.9 

14.0 

3 

6.8 

9.7 

12.3 

14.6 

16.6 

18.3 

3'A 

8.0 

11.5 

14.7 

17.6 

20.3 

22.6 

4 

9.2 

13.3 

17.2 

20.7 

23.9 

26.8 

4 X 

10.4 

15.2 

19.6 

23.8 

27.6 

31.1 

5 

11.7 

17.0 

22.1 

26.9 

31.3 

35.4 

5 l A 

12.9 

18.9 

24.5 

29.9 

35.0 

39.7 

6 

14.1 

20.7 

27.8 

33.0 

38.7 

44.0 

6/4 

15.3 

22.6 

29.5 

36.1 

42.3 

48.3 

7 

16.6 

24.4 

31.9 

39.1 

46.0 

52.6 

7A 

17.8 

26.2 

34.4 

42.2 

49.7 

56.9 

8 

19.0 

28.1 

36.8 

45.3 

53.4 

61.2 

8A 

20.2 

29.9 

39.3 

48.3 

57.1 

65.5 

9 

21.5 

31.8 

41.7 

51.4 

60.8 

69.8 

d'A 

22.7 

33.6 

44.2 

54.5 

64.4 

74.1 

10 

23.9 

35.4 

46.6 

57.5 

68.1 

78.4 

1034 

25.2 

37.3 

49.1 

60.6 

71.8 

82.7 

ll 

26.4 

39-1 

51.6 

63.7 

75.5 

87.0 

11 A 

27.6 

41.0 

54.8 

66.7 

79.2 

91.3 

12 

28.8 

42.8 

56.5 

69.8 

82.8 

95.6 

12A 


44.6 

58.9 

72.9 

86.5 

99.9 

13 


46.5 

61.4 

75.9 

90.2 

104.2 

1334 



63.8 

79.0 

93.9 

108.5 

14 



66.3 

82.1 

97.6 

112.8 

1434 



68.7 

85.2 

101.2 

117.0 

16 



71.2 

88.2 

104.9 

121.3 

16 



76.1 

94.3 

112.3 

129.9 

17 



81.0 

100.5 

119.7 

138.5 

18 



85.9 

106.6 

127.0 

147.1 

19 



90 8 

112.8 

134 4 

155.7 

20 



95.7 

118.9 

141.7 

164.3 


1 in. 

VA in- 

l^in. 

VA in. 

13* in. 

2 in. 

9.8 






14.7 






19.6 






24.6 






29.5 






34.4 

37.3 

39.9 




39.3 

42.8 

46.0 




44.2 

48.3 

52.2 




49.1 

53.9 

58.3 




54.0 

59.4 

64.4 




58.9 

64.9 

70.6 

81-0 



63.8 

70.4 

76.7 

88.4 

. 


68.7 

75.9 

82.8 

95.7 



73.6 

81.5 

89.0 

103.1 



78.5 

87.0 

95.1 

110.5 



83.5 

92.5 

101.2 

117.8 

133.2 


88.4 

98.0 

107.4 

125.2 

141.7 

157.1 

93.3 

103.5 

113.5 

132.5 

150.3 

166.9 

98.2 

109.1 

119.7 

139.9 

158.9 

176.7 

103.1 

114.6 

125.8 

147.3 

167.5 

186.5 

108.0 

120.1 

131.9 

154.6 

176.1 

196.3 

112.9 

125.6 

138.1 

162.0 

184.7 

206.2 

117.8 

131.2 

144.2 

169.4 

193.3 

216.0 

122.7 

136.7 

150.3 

176.7 

201.9 

225.8 

127.6 

142.2 

156.5 

1S4.1 

210.5 

235.6 

132.5 

147.7 

162.6 

191.4 

219.1 

245.4 

137.5 

153.2 

168.7 

198.8 

227.6 

255.2 

147.3 

164.3 

181.0 

213.5 

244.8 

274.9 

157.1 

175.3 

193.3 

228.3 

262.0 

294.5 

166.9 

186.4 

205.6 

243.0 

279.2 

314.1 

176.7 

197.4 

217.8 

257.7 

296.4 

333.8 

186.5 

208.5 

230.1 

274.4 

313.5 

353.4 


Inorease in Weight for 1-2 In. Increase in Diameter. 


A in- 

%\n. 

A in- 

%in- 

% in- 

Vs in- 

1 in. 

1/4 in- 

1/4 in- 

1/4 in- 

1/4 in- 

2 in. 

1.2 

1.8 

2.5 

3.1 

3.7 

4.3 

4.9 

5.5 

6.1 

7.4 

8.6 

9.8 


345 




























































































WEIGHT OF CAST IRON RACES. 


Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

2 

1.09 

5 

17.04 

8 

69.81 

3% 

2.13 

*X 

22.68 

8* 

83.73 

3 

3.68 

6 

29.45 

9 

99.40 

3% 

5.84 

6* 

37.44 

10 

136.35 

4 

8.73 

7 

46.76 

11 

181.48 

4 )f 

12.42 

7 'X 

57.52 

12 

235.65 


To Find the Weight of Cast Iron Balls When the 
Diameter is Given — Rule: Multiply the cube of the diameter 
by .13*77- 

To Find the Diameter of Cast Iron Balls When the 
Weight is Given — Rule: Multiply the cube root of the weight 
by 1.936. 

To Find the Weight of a Spherical Shell— From the 
weight of a ball of the outer diameter subtract the weight of one 
of the inner diameter. 

Cast Iron—Assumed Weight in Estimating 
A cubic foot 450 lbs. 

A square foot, 1 inch thick . . . . = 38 “ 

A bar 1 inch square and 1 foot long . . = 3.125 “ 

TABLE OF WEIGHT PER EINEAE FOOT OF ROUND 

CAST IRON. 


Diameter, 

Inches. 

W eight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

1 

2.45 

5 

61.36 

9 

198.80 

IX 

3.84 


67.65 

9K 

221.51 

13 ? 

5.52 

5)2 

74.25 

10 

245.44 

IX 

7.52 

% 

81.15 


270.60 

2 

9.82 

6 

88.36 

11 

296.98 

2X 

12.43 

6^ 

95.87 

UK 

324.59 

3 % 

15.34 

6/12 

103.70 

12 

353.43 

m 

18.56 

6 X 

111.83 

13 

414.79 

3 

22.09 

7 

120.26 

14 

481.06 

3X 

25.92 

7 X 

129.01 

15 

552.23 

3% 

30.07 

7)1 

138.06 

16 

628.32 

3% 

34.52 

7 X 

147.42 

17 

709.31 

4 

39.27 

8 

157.08 

18 

795.22 


44.33 

8 X 

167.05 

20 

981.75 


49.70 

8)| 

177.33 

22 

1187.92 

4 X 

55.38 


187.91 

24 

1413.72 


346 




































Rules for Obtaining Approximate Weight of Cast Iron. 

Square of diameter multiplied by 2.46 equals weight of cast 
iron round bar 1 foot long. 

To ascertain weight of cast iron columns or pipe subtract 
weight of inside diameter of shell from weight of outside diame¬ 
ter. 

Square of the diameter divided by 5 equals approximately the 
weight of a circular cast iron plate 1 inch thick. 

Rules for Obtaining Approximate Weight of Wrought Iron. 

For Round Bars — Rule: Multiply the square of the diame¬ 
ter in inches by the length in feet, and that product by 2.6. The 
product will be the weight in pounds, nearly. 

For Square and Flat Wrought Bars — Ru.e: Multiply 
the area of the end of the bar in inches by the length in feet, 
and that by 3.32. The product will be the weight in pounds, 
nearly. 

To find the sectional area of a bar of wrought iron, given the 
weight per foot, multiply by 3 and divide by 10. 

To find the weight per foot, given the area, divide by 3 and 
multiply by 10. 

To Convert Weight of 


Wrought Iron into Cast Iron 
“ “ Steel 

“ “ Zinc 

“ . “ Brass 

“ “ Copper 

“ “ Lead 

Square Iron into Round 



Decimal Approximations Useful in Calculations, 


Cubic inches, X 

.267 

= 

lbs. average 

cast iron. 

U 

a 

X 

.281 


a a 

wrought iron. 

<C 

a 

X 

.283 

= 

a a 

cast steel. 

a 

a 

X 

.3225 

= 

a a 

copper. 

a 

a 

X 

.3037 

= 

a a 

brass. 

a 

a 

X 

.26 

= 

a a 

zinc. 

a 

a 

X 

.4103 

= 

a a 

lead. 

a 

a 

X 

.2636 

= 

a a 

tin. 

a 

a 

X 

.4908 

= 

a a 

mercury. 

Cylin. 

a 

a 

X 

.2065 

= 

a a 

cast iron. 

a 

X 

.2168 

= 

a a 

wrought iron. 

a 

a 

X 

.2223 

= 

a a 

cast steel. 

a 

a 

X 

.2533 

= 

a a 

copper. 

a 

a 

X 

.2385 

= 

a a 

brass. 

a 

a 

X 

.2042 

= 

a a 

zinc. 

a 

a 

X 

.3223 

= 

a a 

lead. 

a 

a 

X 

.207 

= 

a a 

tin. 

a 

a 

X 

.3854 

= 

a a 

347 

mercury. 


X 0.928 
X 1.014 
X 0.918 
X 1-082 
X 1.144 
X 1-468 
X -7854 










Weight of a Lineal Foot of Flat Bar Iron, in Lbs. 

BIRMINGHAM GAUGE. 


THICKNESS IN FRACTIONS OF INCHES. 


Breadth in 


Inches. 

X 

5-16 

% 

7-16 

X 

% 

% 

7 A 

1 

1 

.83 

1.04 

1.25 

1.46 

1.67 

2.08 

2.50 

2.92 

3.34 

VA 

.93 

1.17 

1.40 

1.64 

1.87 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3.75 

id 

1.04 

1.30 

1.56 

1.82 

2.08 

2.60 

3.13 

3.65 

4.17 

1% 

1.14 

1.43 

1.72 

2.00 

2.29 

2.87 

3.44 

4.01 

4.59 

VA 

1.25 

1.56 

1.87 

2.19 

2.50 

3.13 

3.75 

4.38 

5.00 

1% 

1.35 

1.69 

2.03 

2.37 

2.71 

3.39 

4.07 

4.70 

5.43 


1.46 

1.82 

2.19 

2.55 

2.92 

3.65 

4.38 

5.11 

5.84 

VA 

1.56 

1.95 

2.34 

2.74 

3.13 

3.91 

4.69 

5.47 

6.26 

2 

1.67 

2.08 

2.50 

2.92 

3.34 

4.17 

5.01 

5.86 

6.68 

2% 

1.77 

2.21 

2.66 

3.10 

3.55 

4.43 

5.32 

6.21 

7.10 


1.87 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3.76 

4.69 

5.63 

6.57 

7.52 

2% 

1.98 

2.47 

2.97 

3.47 

3.96 

4.95 

5.95 

6.94 

7.93 

2% 

2.08 

2.60 

3.13 

3.65 

4.17 

5.21 

6.26 

7.30 

8.35 

2 b A 

2.19 

2.74 

3.28 

3.83 

4.38 

5.47 

6.57 

7.67 

8.77 


2.29 

2.87 

3.44 

4.01 

4.59 

5.74 

6.88 

8.03 

9.18 

2% 

2.40 

3.00 

3.60 

4.20 

4.80 

6.00 

7.20 

8.40 

9.60 

3 

2.50 

3.13 

3.75 

4.38 

5.01 

6.26 

7.51 

8.76 

10.02 


2.71 

3.39 

4.07 

4.74 

5.43 

6.78 

8.14 

9.49 

10.86 

3 x X 

2.92 

3-65 

4.38 

5.11 

5.84 

7.30 

8.76 

10.23 

11.69 

3 % 

3.13 

3.91 

4.68 

5.47 

6.26 

7.82 

9.39 

10.95 

12.52 

4 

3.34 

4.17 

5.00 

5.84 

6.68 

8.35 

10.02 

11.69 

13.36 

4 l A 

3.54 

4.43 

5.32 

6.21 

7.09 

8.87 

10.64 

12.42 

14.19 

4 l A 

3.75 

4.69 

5.63 

6.57 

7.51 

9.39 

11.27 

13.15 

15.03 

m 

4.06 

4.95 

5.94 

6.94 

7.93 

9.91 

11.89 

13.88 

15.86 

5 

4.17 

5.21 

6.26 

7.30 

8.35 

10.44 

12.52 

14.61 

16.70 

5X 

4.38 

5.47 

6.57 

7.67 

8.76 

11.06 

13.14 

15.34 

17.53 

6 A 

4.59 

5.73 

6.88 

8.03 

9.18 

11.48 

13.77 

16.07 

18.37 


4.80 

6.00 

7.20 

8.40 

9.60 

12.00 

14.40 

16.80 

19.20 

6 

5.01 

6.25 

7.51 

8.76 

10.02 

12.53 

15.03 

17.53 

20.05 


Wrought Iron, Assumed Weight. 
A cubic foot ..... 

A square foot, i inch thick 
A bar i inch square, i foot long . 

A “ i “ “ i yard long . . 


— 480 lbs. 
. = 40 “ 

= 3 ^ “ 

. = 10 “ 


GAUGES AND THEIR EQTJIVAEENTS. 


No. 

27, 

equal to 


inch. 

No. 

12, 

equal to 

6? 

inch. 

it 

21, 

it 

it 


u 

it 

10, 

it 

tt 

/8 

it 

it 

18, 

it 

it 

nV 

tt 

tt 

8, 

tt 

it 

ii 

it 

it 

16, 

<( 

<t 

tV 

it 

it 

6, 

tt 

tt 

fV 

it 

it 

14, 

«< 

it 


tt 

tt 

5, 

M 

it 


it 

it 

13, 

tt 

it 

h 

it 

tt 

4, 

it 

tt 


u 


Truth is as impossible to be soiled by any outward touch as 
the sunbeam .—Lord Bacon. 


348 




































AMERICAN AND BIRMINGHAM WIRE GAUGES. 

THICKNESS IN INCHES. 

Has well. 


Gauge. 

Thickness 

American 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

Birmingham 

Gauge. 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

American 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

Birmingham 

Gauge. 

0000 

.46 

.454 

17 

.0452 

.058 

000 

.4096 

.425 

18 

.0403 

.049 

00 

.3648 

.38 

19 

.0359 

.042 

0 

.3248 

.34 

20 

.0319 

.035 

1 

.2893 

.30 

21 

.0284 

.032 

2 

.2576 

.284 

22 

.0253 

.028 

3 

.2294 

.259 

23 

.0225 

.025 

4 

.2043 

.238 

24 

.0201 

.022 

5 

.1819 

.22 

25 

.0179 

.02 

6 

.1620 

.203 

26 

.0160 

.018 

7 

.1443 

.18 

27 

.0142 

.016 

8 

.1285 

.165 

28 

.0126 

.014 

9 

.1144 

.148 

29 

.0112 

.013 

10 

.1019 

.134 

30 

.01 

.012 

11 

.0907 

.12 

31 

.0089 

.01 

12 

.0808 

.109 

32 

0079 

.009 

13 

.0719 

.095 

33 

.007 

.008 

14 

.0641 

.083 

34 

.0063 

007 

15 

.057 

.072 

35 

.0056 

.005 

16 

:0508 

.065 

36 

.005 

.004 


Tlie Area of a Circle. 

Of all plane figures, the circle is the most capacious, or has the 
greatest area within the same limits. It is geometrically demon¬ 
strable that it has the same area as a right-angled triangle with 
a base equal to its circumference, and a perpendicular equal to 
its radius, that is, half the product of the radius and circumfer¬ 
ence. It is obviously larger than any figure, of however many 
sides, inscribed within its perimeter, and smaller than any cir¬ 
cumscribed polygon. As a result of laborious calculations on 
this basis (pushed in one instance to 600 places of decimals with¬ 
out reaching the end), it has been ascertained that the ratio of 
the diameter to the circumference of any circle (sufficient) ex¬ 
act for all practical purposes), is as 1 : 3.1416 (3.141592653-I-) or 
in whole numbers, approximately, as 7 : 22, or more nearly as 
II 3 : 355 * Hence, to find the circumference or diameter, the 
other quantity being known, multiply or divide by 3.1416; and to 
find the area, multiply half the diameter by half the circumfer¬ 
ence, or the square of the diameter by .7854 (3.1416-^-4). 

To find the surface of a globe, multiply the square of 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the solidity of a globe, multiply the cube of the 
diameter by .5236. [349] 



















AREAS OF CIRCLES, 

Advancing by eighths. 


AREAS. 


Diam . 

0 

H 

X 

% 

K 

% 

% 

% 

o 

.0 

.0122 

.0490 

.1104 

.1963 

.3068 

.4417 

.6013 

1 

.7854 

.9940 

1.227 

1.484 

1.767 

2.073 

2.405 

2.761 

2 

3.1416 

3.546 

3.976 

4.430 

4.908 

5.411 

6.939 

64.91 

3 

7.068 

7.669 

8.295 

8.946 

9.621 

10.32 

11.04 

11.79 

4 

12.56 

13.36 

14.18 

15.03 

15.90 

16.80 

17.72 

18.66 

5 

19.63 

20.62 

21.64 

22.69 

23.75 

24.85 

25.96 

27.10 

6 

28.27 

29.46 

30.67 

31.91 

33.18 

34.47 

35.78 

37.12 

7 

38.48 

39.87 

41.28 

42.71 

44.17 

45.66 

47.17 

48.70 

8 

50.26 

51.84 

53.45 

55.08 

56.74 

58.42 

60.13 

61.86 

9 

63.61 

65.39 

67.20 

69.02 

70.88 

72.75 

74.69 

76.58 

10 

78.54 

80.51 

82.51 

84.54 

86.59 

88 66 

90.76 

92.88 

11 

95.03 

97.20 

99.40 

101.6 

103.8 

106.1 

108.4 

110.7 

12 

113.0 

115.4 

117.8 

120.2 

122.7 

125.1 

127.6 

130.1 

13 

132.7 

135.2 

137.8 

140.5 

143.1 

145.8 

148.4 

151.2 

14 

153.9 

156.6 

159.4 

162.2 

165.1 

167.9 

170.8 

173-7 

15 

176.7 

179 6 

182.6 

185.6 

188.6 

191.7 

194.8 

197.9 

16 

201.0 

204.2 

207.3 

210.5 

213.8 

217.0 

220.3 

223.6 

17 

226.9 

230.3 

233.7 

237.1 

240.5 

243.9 

247.4 

250.9 

18 

254.4 

258.0 

261.5 

265.1 

268.8 

272.4 

276.1 

279.8 

19 

283.5 

287.2 

291.0 

294.8 

298.8 

302.4 

306.3 

310.2 

20 

314.1 

318.1 

322.0 

326.0 

330.0 

334.1 

338.1 

342.2 

21 

346.3 

350.4 

354.6 

358.8 

363.0 

367.2 

371.5 

375.8 

22 

380.1 

384.4 

388.8 

393.2 

397.6 

402.0 

406.4 

410.9 

23 

415.4 

420.0 

424.5 

429.1 

433.7 

438.3 

443.0 

447-6 

24 

452.3 

457.1 

461.8 

466.6 

471.4 

476.2 

481.1 

485.9 

25 

490.8 

495.7 

500.7 

505.7 

510.7 

515.7 

520.7 

525.8 

26 

530.9 

536.0 

541.1 

546.3 

551.5 

556.7 

562.0 

567.2 

27 

572.5 

577.8 

583.2 

588.5 

593.9 

599.3 

604.8 

610.2 

28 

615.7 

621.2 

626.7 

632.3 

637.9 

643.5 

649.1 

654.8 

29 

660.5 

666.2 

671.9 

677.7 

683.4 

689.2 

695.1 

700.9 

30 

706.8 

712.7 

718.6 

724.6 

730.6 

736.6 

742.6 

748.6 

31 

754.8 

760.9 

767.0 

773.1 

779.3 

785.5 

791.7 

798.0 

32 

804.3 

810.6 

816.9 

823.2 

829.6 

836.0 

842.4 

848.8 

33 

855.3 

861.8 

868.3 

874.9 

881.4 

888.0 

894.6 

901.3 

34 

907.9 

914.7 

921.3 

928.1 

934.8 

941.6 

948.4 

955.3 

35 

962.1 

969.0 

975.9 

982.8 

989.8 

996.8 

1003.8 

1010.8 

36 

1017.9 

1025.0 

1032.1 

1039.2 

1046.3 

1053.5 

1060.7 

1068.0 

37 

1075.2 

1082.5 

1089.8 

1097.1 

1104.5 

1111.8 

1119.2 

1126.7 

38 

1134.1 

1141.6 

1149.1 

1156.6 

1164.2 

1171.7 

1179.3 

1186.9 

39 

1194.6 

1202.3 

1210.0 

1217.7 

1225.4 

1233.2 

1241.0 

1248.8 

40 

1256.6 

1264.5 

1272.4 

12 S 0.3 

1288.2 

1296.2 

1304.2 

1312.2 

41 

1320.3 

1328.3 

1336.4 

1344.5 

1352.7 

1360.8 

1369.0 

1377.2 

42 

1385.4 

1393.7 

1402.0 

1410.3 

1418.6 

1427.0 

1435.4 

1443.8 

43 

1452.2 

1460.7 

1469.1 

1477.6 

1486.2 

1494.7 

1503.3 

1511.9 

44 

1520.5 

1529.2 

1537.9 

1546.6 

1555.3 

1564.0 

1572.8 

1581.6 

45 - 

1590.4 

1599.3 

1608.2 

1617.0 

1626.0 

1634.9 

1643.9 

1652.9 


350 



























££&££ gSSSSSS c?Swt3P Soowo ctommo Diam, 


CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES, 

Advancing by eighths. 


-■ " • • ■—■■--•■ -■ ----- 1 " . /a 

CIRCUMFERENCES. 


0 

Vs 


% 

l A 

% 

% 

Vs 

.0 

.3927 

.7854 

1.178 

1.570 

1.963 

2.356 

2 . 748 ' 

3.141 

3.534 

3.927 

4.319 

4.712 

5.105 

5.497 

5.890 

6.283 

6.675 

7.068 

7.461 

7.854 

8.246 

8.639 

9.032 

9.424 

9.817 

10.21 

10.60 

10.99 

11.38 

11.78 

12.17 

12.56 

12.95 

13.35 

13.74 

14.13 

14.52 

14.92 

15:31 

15.70 

16.10 

16.49 

16.88 

17.27 

17.67 

18.06 

18.45 

18.84 

19.24 

19.63 

20.02 

20.42 

20.81 

21.20 

21.59 

21.99 

22.38 

22.77 

23.16 

23.56 

23.95 

24.34 

24.74 

25.13 

25.52 

25.91 

26.31 

26.70 

27.09 

27.48 

27.88 

28.27 

28.66 

29.05 

29.45 

29.84 

30.23 

30.63 

31.02 

31.41 

31.80 

32.20 

32.59 

32.98 

33.37 

33.77 

34.16 

34.55 

34.95 

35.34 

35.73 

36.12 

36.52 

36.91 

37.30 

37.69 

38.09 

38.48 

38.87 

39.27 

39.66 

40.05 

40.44 

40.84 

41.23 

41.62 

42.01 

42.41 

42.80 

43.19 

43.58 

43.98 

44.37 

44.76 

45.16 

45.55 

45.94 

46.33 

46.73 

47.12 

47.51 

47.90 

48.30 

48.69 

49.08 

49.48 

49.87 

50.26 

50.65 

51.05 

51.44 

51.83 

52.22 

52.62 

53.01 

53.40 

53.79 

64.19 

54.58 

64.97 

55.37 

55.76 

56.15 

56.54 

56.94 

57.33 

57.72 

58.11 

58.51 

58.90 

59.29 

59.69 

60.08 

60.47 

60.86 

61.26 

61.65 

62.04 

62.43 

62.83 

63.22 

63.61 

64.01 

64.40 

64.79 

65.18 

65.58 

65.97 

66.36 

66.75 

67.15 

67.54 

67.93 

68.32 

68.72 

69.11 

69.50 

69.90 

70.29 

70.68 

71.07 

71.47 

71.86 

72.25 

72.64 

73.04 

73.43 

73.82 

74.22 

74.61 

75.00 

75.39 

75.79 

76.18 

76.57 

76.96 

77.36 

77.75 

78.14 

78.54 

78.93 

79.32 

79.71 

80.10 

80.50 

80.89 

81.28 

81.68 

82.07 

82.46 

82.85 

83.25 

83.64 

84.03 

84.43 

84.82 

85.21 

85.60 

86.00 

86.39 

86.78 

87.17 

87.57 

87.96 

88.35 

88.75 

89.14 

89.53 

89.92 

90.32 

90.71 

91.10 

91.49 

91.89 

92.28 

92.67 

93.06 

93.46 

93.85 

94.24 

94.64 

95.03 

95.42 

95.81 

96.21 

96.60 

96.99 

97.39 

97.78 

98.17 

98.57 

98.96 

99.35 

99.75 

100.14 

100.53 

100.92 

101.32 

101.71 

102.10 

102.49 

102.89 

103.29 

103.67 

104.07 

104.46 

104.85 

105.24 

105.64 

106.03 

106.42 

106.81 

107.21 

107.60 

107.99 

108.39 

108.78 

109.17 

109.56 

109.96 

110.35 

110.74 

111.13 

111.53 

111.92 

112.31 

112.71 

113.10 

113.49 

113.88 

114.28 

114.67 

115.06 

115.45 

115.85 

116.24 

116.63 

117.02 

117.42 

117.81 

118.20 

118.61 

118.99 

119.38 

119.77 

120.17 

120.56 

120.95 

121.34 

121.74 

122.13 

122.52 

122.92 

123.31 

123.70 

124.09 

124.49 

124.88 

125.27 

125.66 

126.06 

126.45 

126.84 

127.24 

127.63 

128.02 

128.41 

128.81 

129.20 

127.59 

129.98 

130.38 

130.77 

131.16 

131.55 

131.95 

132.34 

132.73 

133.13 

133.52 

133.91 

134.30 

134.70 

135.09 

135.48 

135.87 

136.27 

136.66 

137.05 

137.45 

137.84 

138.23 

138.62 

139.02 

139.41 

139.80 

140.19 

140.59 

140.98 

141.37 

141.76 

142.16 

142.55 

142.94 

143.34 

143.73 

144.12 


351 





























Table of Decimal Equivalents ef 8ths. 16ths, 32nds 

and 64ths of an Inch. 


8tlis. 

1 = .125 
i = .250 
f = .375 
| = .500 
f = .625 
f = .750 
1 = .875 


16ths. 


rV 

r 3 e 

5 

¥ 

TS 

T6 

xi 

it 

1 5 
T6 


= .0625 
= .1875 
= .3125 
= .4375 
= .5625 
= .6875 
= .8125 
= .9375 


32nds. 

A = .03125 
A = .09375 


A = .15625 
A = .21875 
■ A = .28125 
A = .34375 
A = .40625 
A = .46875 
A = .53125 
if = .59375 
ff = .65625 
ff = .71875 
ff = .78125 
ff = .84375 
ff = .90625 
ff = .96875 

64ths. 

A = .015625 
A = .046875 
A = .078125 
A = .109375 
A = .140625 
ff = .171875 
ff = .203125 
ff = .234375 


ff =: .265625 
ff = .296875 
ff = .328125 
ff =; .359375 
ff = .390625 
ff = .421875 
ff = .453125 
ff = .484375 
ff = .515625 
ff = .546875 
ff = .578125 
ff = .609375 
ff = .640625 
ff = .671875 
ff = .703125 
ff = .734375 
ff = .765625 
ff = .796875 
ff = .828125 
ff = .859375 
ff = .890625 
ff =* .921875 
ff =: .953125 
ff = .984375 


Handy Facts for Apehiteets and Builders. 

Pitch of tin, copper or tar-and-gravel roofs five-eighths of an 
inch to the foot and upwards. 

The average weight of 20,000 men and women weighed at 
Boston was: Men, 141A lbs.; women, 124A lbs. 

Smallest convenient size of slab for a 14-in. wash bowl, 21 by 
24 in. Height of slab from floor, 2 ft. 6 in. 

Urinals should be 2 ft. 2 in. between partitions; partitions 6 ft. 
high. 

Space occupied by water-closets, 2 ft. 6 in. wide; 2 ft. deep. 

Dimensions of double bed, 6 ft. 6 in. by 4 ft. 6 in. 

Dimensions of single bed (in dormitories), 2 ft 8 in. by 6 ft. 
6 in. 

Dimensions of a bureau, 3 ft. 2 in. wide, 1 ft. 6 in. deep, and 
upwards. 

Dimensions of a common wash-stand, 2 ft. 4 m. wide, 1 ft. 6 
in. deep. 


352 








HANDT FACTS FOR ARCHITECTS , ETC. 

Dimensions of a barrel—Diameter of head, 17 in.; bung, 19 
in.; length, 28 in.; volume, 7,680 cubic in. 

Dimensions of billiard tables (Collender)—4 ft. by 8 ft.; 4 ft. 
2 in. by 9 It.; and 5 ft. by 10 ft. Size of room required respect¬ 
ively, 13 by 17; 14 by.18; 15 by 20. 

Horse-stalls—Width, 3 ft. 10 in. to 4 ft., or else 5 ft. or over in 
width—nine feet long. Width should never be between 4 and 5 
ft., as in that case the horse is liable to cast himself. 

HORSE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES, ETC. 

The unit of nominal power for steam engines, or the usual es¬ 
timate of dynamical effect per minute of a horse, called by en¬ 
gineers a “horse power,” is 33,000 pounds at a velocity of 1 foot 
per minute, or, the effect of a load of 200 pounds raised by a 
horse for 8 hours a day, at the rate of 2 % miles per hour, or 150 
pounds at the rate of 220 feet per minute. 

Rule. —Multiply the area of the piston in square inches by 
the average force of the steam in pounds and by the velocity of 
the piston in feet per minute; divide the product by 33,000, and 
^ of the quotient equal the effective power. 

Another Rule. —The diameter of the piston in inches, mul¬ 
tiplied by itself, multiplied by the stroke in inches, multiplied by 
the revolutions per minute (not the strokes), multiplied by the 
mean effective (average pressure per square inch on piston), mul¬ 
tiplied by .00000397, gives the gross or indicated horsepower. 

For the net effective horse power, deduct from the above about 
for friction of the working parts. 

The mean effective pressure can be accurately determined only 
by the aid of an indicator. When the indicator is not used, and 
in the calculation the boiler pressure is substituted for the mean 
effective pressure, deduct from the result obtained from 40 to 60 
per cent, for loss by condensation and friction of steam pipes and 
passages, decrease of pressure in cylinder due to expansion, back 
pressure of exhaust, and friction of the working parts. 

For engines from 20 to 60 horse power, an average of 50 per 
cent, may be deducted; for smaller engines, more. 

The mean pressure in the cylinder when cutting off at 

.597 
.670 
.743 
.847 
.919 
.937 
.966 
.992 

and skillful 


^ stroke equals boiler pressure multiplied by 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 


U 

U 


u 

u 


u 


u 

u 


a 


u 


u 


Best designed boilers, well set, with good draft 
firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per pound of first- 

353 





HORSE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES. 

class coal. The average result is from 30 to 60 per cent. beloM 
this. 

In calculating horse power of Tubular or Flue boilers, con¬ 
sider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to one nominal 
horse power. 

One square foot of grate will consume on an average 12 lbs. 
of coal per hour. 

Steam engines, in economy, vary from 30 to 60 lbs. of fe *4 
water and from 2 to 7 lbs. of coal per hour per indicated H. P. 

HOUSE POWER OF BELTING. 

A simple rule for ascertaining transmitting power of beltings 
without first computing speed per minute that it travels, is as fol¬ 
lows: Multiply diameter of pulley in inches by its number of 
revolutions per minute, and this product by width of the belt in 
inches; divide the product'by 3,300 for single belting, or by 2,100 
for double belting, and the quotient will be the amount of horse 
power that can be safely transmitted. 


Table for Single Eeather, Four Ply Rubber and Four 
Ply Cotton Belting, Belts not Overloaded. 

1 INCH WIDE, 800 FEET PER MINUTE=1 HORSE POWER. 


Speed 
In Ft per 
Min. 

2 

3 

4 

WIDTH OF BELTS IN INCHES. 

6 6 8 10 12 14 

16 

18 

20 


H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

400 

1 

11 

2 

21 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

600 

n 


3 

3f 

41 

6 

71 

9 

101 

12 

131 

15 

800 

n 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

1000 

2 

3f 

5 

61 

71 

• j 

10 

121 

15 

171 

20 

221 

25 

1200 

3 

41 

6 

71 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

1500 

3f 

5f 

71 

91 

HI 

15 

ISf 

221 

261 

30 

33f 

371 

1800 

4£ 

6f 

9 

Hi 

131 

18 

221 

27 

311 

36 

401 

45 

2000 

5 

71 

10 

121 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

2400 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

2800 

7 

101 

14 

171 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

3000 

71 

HI 

15 

18f 

221 

30 

371 

45 

521 

60 

67J 

75 

3500 

8f 

13 

171 

22 

26 

35 

44 

521 

61 

70 

79 

88 

4000 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

4500 

in 

17 

m 

28 

34 

45 

57 

69 

78 

90 

102 

114 

5000 

121 

19 

25 

31 

371 

50 

621 

75 

871 

100 

112 

125 


Double leather, six-ply rubber or six-ply cotton belting will 
transmit 50 to 75 per cent, more power than is shown in this table. 
(One inch wide, 550 feet per minute=one horse power.) 

354 


















Table of Transmission of Power by Wire Ropes 


V G 

1*4 t/J 

° s 

1-* .2 

►2 v 

7 -i a, 

<M 

O 

u 

V v 

u 

V 

z 

V ^ 
C V 

Ja a 

E o 

d > 

<u g 

nJ 

H ° 

4; CU 

c o 

s 

o 

V CL 

• s > ** 

U 

O 

w 

4 

80 

23 

3 

8 

3.3 

4 

100 

23 

3 

¥ 

4.1 

4 

120 

23 

3 

8 

5.0 

4 

140 

23 

S 

8 

5.8 

5 

80 

22 

tV 

6.9 

5 

100 

22 

tV 

8.6 

5 

120 

22 

tV 

10.3 

5 

140 

22 

7 

16 

12.1 

6 

80 

21 

1 

¥ 

10.7 

6 

100 

21 

1 

2 

13.4 

6 

120 

21 

1 

¥ 

16.1 

C 

140 

21 

1 

2 

18.7 

7 

80 

20 

9 

T¥ 

16.9 

7 

100 

20 

9 

T¥ 

21.1 

7 

120 

20 

9 

T¥ 

25.3 

7 

140 

20 

9 

16 

29.6 

8 

80 

19 

5 

¥ 

22.0 

8 

100 

19 

5 

8 

27.5 

8 

120 

19 

5 

8 

33.0 

8 

140 

19 

5 

¥ 

38.5 

9 

80 

(20 

(19 

9 5 

16 8 

(40.0 

141.5 

9 

100 

(20 

(19 

9 5 

16 8 

(50.0 
(51 9 

9 

120 

(20 

(19 

9 5 

16 8 

(60.0 

162.2 

9 

140 

(20 

(19 

9 ,5 

16 8 

j70 0 
(72 6 


V CJ 
-*-> . 

V _ 
c V 

5 v 

CZ 

it* t/i 

o a 
i, o 

4) \3 

*a d 

E o 

3 > 

rade No. 

if Rope. 

Cm 

o 

u 

V 

V 

E 

oj 

Rope. 

orse 

Power. 



H w 

0 


X 

10 

80 


no 

(18 

5 

8 

l¥ 


( 55.0 
( 58.4 

10 

100 


Q9 

18 

5 

¥ 

11 

1 6 


68 7 
( 73.0 

10 

120 


no 

(18 

5 

¥ 

11 

1 6 


82.5 
( 87 6 

10 

140 


ao 

18 

5 

8 

11 

T6 


96.2 

102.2 

11 

80 


j 19 

(18 

5 

8 

T¥ 

( 64 9 
( 75.5 

11 

100 


(19 

18 

5 

8 

T¥ 


(81.1 
' 94,4 

11 

120 

U9 

(18 

5 

8 

11 

1 6 


97.3 

(113.3 

11 

140 

i 19 

(18 

5 

¥ 

1 1 

T6 


113.6 

132.1 

12 

80 

as 

(17 

1 1 

1 6 

8 

¥ 


93 4 
99.3 

12 

100 


18 

17 

1 1 

T6 

3 

¥ 

j 

116 7 
124.1 

12 

120 

' 

18 

17 

11 
l¥ 

3 

¥ 


140 1 
148 9 

12 

140 

1 

18 

17 

11 
16 

3 

¥ 


163.5 

173.7 

13 

80 

1 

18 

17 

1 1 

1 6 

8 

¥ 


112 0 
122.6 

13 

100 

1 

18 

17 

1 1 

T6 

3 

¥ 

1 

140 0 
153 2 

13 

120 

1 

18 

17 

1 1 

16 

3 

¥ 

1 

168.0 
183 9 

14 

80 


17 




148 0 

] 

16 

3 

¥ 

1 

8 

1 

141 0 


100 


17 


1 


185 0 

14 

1 

16 

3 

¥ 

1 

176 0 

14 

120 


17 


1 


222 0 

1 

16 

3 

¥ 

1 

211.0 

15 

80 


17 

I 

7 

8 


217.0 

1 

16 


217 0 


100 


17 



(259.0 

15 

1 

16 

3 

¥ 

1 

(259 0 


120 


17 


1 

(300 0 

15 

1 

16 

3 

¥ 

(300 0 
































USEFUL HYDRAULIC INFORMATION. 

A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8)^ pounds and 
contains 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water weighs 62}^ 
pounds, and contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7 % gallons. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four 
times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the 
velocity. 

The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 
14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a perfect vacuum it 
will sustain a column of mercury 29.9 inches or a column of 
water 33.9 feet high. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of 
water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. 
Approximately we say that every foot elevation is equal to 
pound pressure per square inch; this allows for ordinary fric¬ 
tion. 

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given 
quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the stand¬ 
ard of speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract 
the square root, and the product will be the diameter in inches of 
the pump cylinder. 

To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 
100 feet of piston speed per minute: Square the diameter of the 
water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example: Ca¬ 
pacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. The square of the diameter 
(5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, the number of 
gallons per minute (approximately). 

To find the horse power necessary to elevate water to a given 
height, multiply the total weight of the water in lbs. by the 
height in feet and divide the product by 33,000 (an allowance of 
25 per cent, should be added for water friction, and a further al¬ 
lowance of 25 per cent, for loss in steam cylinder). 

The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam pressure, 
gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The 
area of the water piston multiplied by the pressure of water per 
square inch gives the resistance. A margin must be made be¬ 
tween the power and the resistance to move the pistons at the 
required speed—say from 20 to 40 per cent., according to speed 
and other conditions. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying 
the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches, will give 
the total number of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 
(which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon in inches), 
and the product is the capacity in gallons. 

With the efficient working of pumps certain precautions are 
necessary. Following are a few hints that will be of service to 
persons interested in the subject: 

Care should be exercised to prevent foreign substances from entering the suction 

356 


USEFUL HYDRAULIC INFORMATION. 

PH*«. In case ot such danger a strainer should be used and the total area of the 
strain**/ holes should be from two to five times the area of the pipe. 

It is of great advantage to have the suction pipe as straight and free as possible. 
Elbows and valves obstruct the flow of water much more than usually supposed. 

Above all other things, the suction pipe should be perfectly air-tight, as a very 
small leak will supply the pump with so much air that little or no water will be ob¬ 
tained. 

It is advantageous, and, when high speed is desired, becomes a necessity, to con¬ 
nect a vacuum chamber to the suction pipe near the pump. 

A foot-valve should be used on long or high suctions. Its area should be at least 
as much as the pipe. 

If in an exposed position, the pump should be thoroughly drained after stopping, 
to prevent injury by frost, by means of the drain-cocks provided for the purpose. 

When a pump is to remain idle for some time the steam cylinder should be well 
oiled before stopping. 

lhe stuffing-boxes should be carefully packed so as not to necessitate them being 
screwed down too tight. 

The most economical speed to run a pump is ioofeet per minute. 

The friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the velocity. 

To find the capacity of a Double-Acting Pump in U. S. gal¬ 
lons per minute, multiply together: the area of the water cylin¬ 
der in inches; the length of the stroke in inches; the number of 
single strokes per minute. Divide the product by 231. For a 
Single-Acting Pump take half the number of single strokes. 

For domestic use water should be kept in wooden or iron 
tanks. Zinc can be used to advantage. The use of lead-lined 
tanks is exceedingly dangerous, especially for keeping rain 
water. 


CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL CISTERNS OR TANKS 

For Each Foot of Depth (U. S. Gallons). 


Diameter in 
Feet. 

Gallons. 

Pounds. 

Diameter in 
Feet. 

Gallons. 

Pounds. 

2.0 

23.5 

196 

9.0 

475.9 

3,968 

2.5 

36.7 

306 

9.5 

530.2 

4,421 

3.0 

52.9 

441 

10.0 

587.5 

4,899 

3.5 

72.0 

600 

11.0 

710.9 

5,928 

4.0 

94.0 

784 

12.0 

846.0 

7,054 

4.5 

119.0 

992 

13.0 

992.9 

8,280 

5.0 

146.9 

1,225 

14.0 

1,151.5 

9,602 

5.5 

177.7 

1,482 

15.0 

1,321.9 

11,023 

6.0 

211.5 

1,764 

20.0 

2,350.1 

19,596 

G.5 

248.2 

2,070 

25.0 

3,672.0 

30,620 

7.0 

287.9 

2,401 

30.0 

5,287.7 

44,093 

7.5 

330.5 

2,756 

35.0 

7,197.1 

60,016 

8.0 

376.0 

3,135 

40.0 

9,400.3 

78,388 

8.5 

424.5 

3,540 

.... 




The great philosopher, Plato, defined man as a featherless 
biped. Thereupon the shrewd old cynic, Diogenese, plucked the feathers from a 
goose, and, having labeled it “Plato’s man," threw it over into the philosopher’s 
class-room. 

or; 7 
00 4 




















SIZE, CAPACITY, ETC., OF BOILERS. 

LOCOMOTIVES. 


Length. 

Diam. 

Fire Box 

Dome. 

Flues. 

Length. 

Area 

Chimney. 

Capac¬ 

ity. 

Ft. 

in. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

in. 

ft. 

in.. 

sq. inches. 

sq. i-n. 

7 

3 

36 

30x30 

16x16 

46 2 

4 

6 

138 

850 

7 

3 

42 

30x36 

16x20 

48 2^ 

4 

6 

240 

1100 

8 

3 

42 

36x36 

16x20 

48 2 % 

5 


240 

1250 

10 

3 

42 

36x36 

20x24 

48 2^ 

7 


240 

1725 

12 

3 

42 

36x42 

24x24 

40 3 

8 

6 

280 

2000 

14 

3 

42 

36x42 

24x24 

40 3 

10 

6 

280 

2500 

10 

3 

48 

42x36 

24x24 

50 3 

7 


350 

2000 

14 

3 

48 

42x42 

24x30 

50 3 

10 

6 

350 

3000 

16 


48 

42x48 

30x30 

50 3 

11 

9 

350 

3600 


Shell %-in. C. H. No. 1 iron; heads and fire-box, T 5 ^-in. C. H. 
No. 1 flange ; wrought iron rings around fire door and in legs. 


HORIZONTAL TUBULARS. 


Length. 

Diam. 

Dome. 

No. Flues. 

Area 

Chimney. 

Heating S. 

Capacity. 

Feet. 

inches. 

inches. 

in.' 

sq.inches. 

sq. inches. 

sq. inches. 

10 

36 

20x20 

30 3 

260 

280 

1400 

12 

36 

20x24 

30 3 

260 

330 

1650 

10 

42 

20x24 

40 3 

350 

380 

1900 

12 

42 

24x24 

40 3 

350 

440 

2200 

14 

42 

24x24 

40 3 

350 

480 

2400 

16 

42 

24x30 

40 3 

350 

560 

2800 

14 

48 

24x30 

50 3 

440 

630 

3150 

16 

48 

24x30 

50 3 

440 

725 

3625 

16 

54 

30x36 

50 3X 

625 

850 

4250 

16 

60 

30x36 

50 4 

800 

975 

4875 

18 

60 

30x36 

50 4 

800 

1250 

6250 


Small boilers: Shell j 5 g-in. C. H. No. I iron; heads, T Vm. C 
H. No. 1 flange iron. 

Large boilers ( 54 -in. and upwards): Shell %-in. C. H. No. 
1 iron; heads, ^-in. C. H. No. 1 flange iron. 

BRICK CHIMNEYS. 

Thickness of brick-work, one brick from top to twenty-five 
feet from top; a brick and a half from 25 to 50 ft. from top, in¬ 
creasing by half a brick for each additional 25 feet to bottom. 
The diameter at base should be not less than one-tenth the 
height. If the inside diameter at top exceed 4}^ feet, the top 
length should be a brick and a half thick. 

358 

































TOILER CHIMNEYS. 

For marine boilers the general rule is to allow 14 sq. in. of 
chimney for each nominal horse-power. For stationary boilers 
the area of the chimneys should be one-fifth greater than the 
combined area of all the flues or tubes. Where boilers are pro¬ 
vided with other means of draught the dimensions of the chimney 
are not so important. 


Diameter and Height of Boiler Chimneys. 


Horse pow’r 
of Boiler. 

Height of 
Chimney. 

Interior Diam. 
at Top. 

Horse pow’r 
of Boiler. 

Height of 
Chimney. 

Interior Diam. 
at Top. 

10 

60 ft. 

14 inches. 

70 

120 ft. 

30 inches. 

12 

75 “ 

14 “ 

90 

120 “ 

34 

16 

90 “ 

16 

120 

135 “ 

38 

20 

99 “ 

17 “ 

160 

150 “ 

43 “ 

30 

105 “ 

21 “ 

200 

165 “ 

47 “ 

50 

120 “ 

26 

250 

180 “ 

42 “ 

60 

120 “ 

27 

380 

195 “ 

57 “ 


Table of the Principal Alloys. 

A combination of copper and tin makes bath metal. 

A combination of copper and zinc makes bell metal. 

A combination of tin and copper makes bronze metal. 

A combination of tin, antimony, copper and bismuth makes 
britannia meial. 

A combination of tin and copper makes cannon metal. 

A combination of copper and zinc makes Dutch gold. 

A combination of copper, nickel and zinc, with sometimes ? 
little iron and tin makes German silver. 

A combination of gold and copper makes standard gold. 

A combination of gold, copper and silver makes old-standard 
gold. 

A combination of tin and copper makes gun metal. 

A combination of copper and zinc makes mosaic gold. 

A combination of tin and lead makes pewter. 

A combination of lead and a little arsenic makes sheet metal. 
A combination of silver and copper makes standard silver. 

A combination of tin and lead makes solder. 

A combination of lead and antimony makes type metal. 

A combination of copper and arsenic makes white copper. 

How to Mix Printing Inks and Paints in the 
Preparation of Tints. 

THE FIRST NAMED COLOR ALWAYS PREDOMINATES. 
Mixing dark green and purple makes bottle green. 

Mixing white and medium yellow makes buff tint. 

Mixing red, black and blue makes dark brown. 

Mixing bronze, blue, lemon yellow and black makes dark green. 
Mixing white, medium yellow and black makes drab tint. 
Mixing white, lake and lemon yellow makes flesh tint. 

359 





















MIXING INKS AND PAINTS. 


Mixing lemon yellow and bronze blue makes grass-green. 

Mixing white and black makes gray tint. 

Mixing white and purple makes lavender tint. 

Mixing red, black and medium yellow makes maroon. 

Mixing lake and purple makes magenta. 

Mixing medium yellow and purple makes olive green. 

Mixing medium yellow and red makes orange. 

Mixing white, ultramarine blue and black makes pearl tint. 

Mixing white and lake makes pink. 

Mixing ultramarine blue and lake makes purple. 

Mixing orange, lake and purple makes russet. 

Mixing medium yellow, red and white makes sienna. 

Mixing white and ultramarine blue makes sky blue. 

Mixing ultramarine blue, black and white makes slate. 

Mixing vermillion and black makes Turkey red. 

Mixing white, yellow, red and black makes umber. 

Durability of Different Woods. 

Experiments have been lately made by driving sticks, made of 
different woods, each two feet long and one and one-half inches 
square, into the ground, only one-half an inch projecting out¬ 
ward. It was found that in five years all those made of oak, elm, 
ash, fir, soft mahogany, and nearly every variety of pine, were 
totally rotten. Larch, hard pine and teak wood were decayed on 
the outside only, while acacia, with the exception of being also 
slightly attacked on the exterior, was otherwise sound. Hard 
mahogany and cedar of Lebanon were in tolerably good con¬ 
dition; but only Virginia cedar was found as good as when put 
in the ground. This is of some importance to builders, showing 
what woods should be avoided, and what others used by pref¬ 
erence in underground work. 

The duration of wood when kept dry is very great, as beams 
still exist which are known to be nearly 1,100 years old. Piles 
driven by the Romans prior to the Christian era have been ex¬ 
amined of late, and found to be perfectly sound after an immer¬ 
sion of nearly 2,000 years. 

The wood of some tools will last longer than the metals, as in 
spades, hoes and plows. In other tools the wood is first gone, 
as in wagons, wheelbarrows and machines. Such wood should 
be painted or oiled; the paint not only looks well, but preserves 
the wood; petroleum oil is as good as any other. 

Hard wood stumps decay in five or six years; spruce stumps 
decay in about the same time; hemlock stumps in eight to nine 
years; cedar, eight to nine years; pine stumps, never. 

Cedar, oak, yellow pine and chestnut are the most durable 
woods in dry places. 

Timber intended for posts is rendered almost proof against rot 
by thorough seasoning, charring and immersion in hot coal tar. 

3(30. 


Specific Gravity of Various Substances. 

A gallon of water or wine weighs io lbs., and this is taken as 
the basis of the following table: 


LIQUIDS. 

Water. 100 

Sea water.103 

Dead Sea. 124 

Alcohol. 84 

Olive oil:. 92 

Turpentine. 99 

Wine. 100 

Urine. 101 

Cider. 102 

Beer. 102 

Woman’s milk.102 

Cow’s “ .103 

Goat’s “ . 104 

Porter. 104 

Emerald. 277.5 

Crystal. 265.3 


TIMBER. 


Cork.. 

. 24 

Poplar.. 

. 38 

Fir. 

. 55 

Cedar. 

. 61 

Pear. 

. 66 

Walnut. 

. 67 

Cherry....... 


Maple. 

. 75 

Apple. 

. 79 

Ash. 

. 84 

Beech . 

. 85 

Mahogany .. 

. 106 

Oak. 

. 117 

Ebony. 

. 133 

PRECIOUS 

STONES. 

Diamond... 

. 353.0 

Topaz. 

. 401.1 


METALS. 

Zinc. 719 

Cast iron. 721 

Tin.. 729 

Bar iron. 779 

Steel. 783 

Copper. 869 

Brass. 840 

Silver.1,051 

Lead.1,135 

Mercury. 1,357 

Gold.1,926 

Platina.1,950 


Garnet. 406.3 

Ruby. 428.3 


SUNDRIES. 


Indigo. 

.... 77 

Peat .. 

. 133 

Porcelain 

Gunpowder. 

.... 93 

Opium. 

. 134 

Stone ... 

Butter. 

.... 94 

Honey. 

. 145 

Marble.. 

Ice . 

.... 117 

Ivory. 

. 183 

Granite.. 

Clay . 

.... 120 

Brick. 

.200 

Chalk... 

Coal . 

. 130 

Sulphur. 

. 203 

Glass.... 


Cork.. 

Cedar. 

Beech. 

Butter ..... 
Water ..... 
Mahogany, 

Ice. 

Oak. 

Clay.. 

Coal. 


226 


278 

279 
289 


'Weight In Cubic Feet. 


Lbs. per 
Cub. Ft. 
. 15 

. 36 

. 51 

. 56 

. 62 
. 66 
. 70 

. 70 

. 72 

. 80 


Lbs. per 
Cub. Ft. 

Brick. 120 

Stone. 150 

Granite. 166 

Glass. 172 

Iron. 470 

Copper. 520 

Silver.. 630 

Lead... 680 

Gold. 1,155 


Tensile anil Transverse Strength 

A crushing force of i,ooo lbs. per square inch on a bar i inch 
square, and 12 inches long, gives the following ratios of 
strength: 


Stone 
Glass . 


Tensile. 
. 100 
. 123 


Transverse. 

10 

10 


Cast iron. 
Timber .. 


Tensile. 
. 158 

• 1,900 


Transverse. 

20 

85 


Tensile Test of Steel. 

BAR 8 INCHES LONG. 


Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Extension, 

Section. per Sq. Inch. Inches. 
1.0000 13.93 .01 

.9799 16.96 .10 

.9331 23.43 .40 

.8741 27.23 1.00 

Elastic Limit... 17.40 tons. 

Maximum strain. 28.35 “ 

Breaking load.-. 25.05 “ 


Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Extension, 

Section. per Sq. Inch. Inches. 

.8325 28.35 1.40 

.7088 27.32 2.00 

.5541 25.05 2.20 

Cohesion.45.21 tons. 

Extension.27/4 percent. 

Contraction.4414 “ 


361 








































































































TENSILE S TEE NOTH OP STEEL.—Continued. 


Taking the strength of Swedish iron at ioo, the tensiU 
strength of steel compares thus: 

Swedish iron. 100 I Cannon steel. 173 

Boiler steel. 118 | Spring steel.202 


Pecuniary Value of Metals. 


Few people have any idea of the value of precious metals other 
than gold, silver and copper, which are commonly supposed to 
be the most precious of all. There are many metals more valuable 
and infinitely rarer. The following table gives the names and 
prices of all the known metals of pecuniary worth: 


Vanadium. 

Rubidium. 

Zirconium. 

Lithium. 

Glucium. 

Calcium... 

Strontium. 

Terbium. 

Vitrium... 

Erbium. 

Price per 
Av. pound. 

. $10,000 00 

. 9.070 00 

■. 7,200 00 

. 7,000 00 

. 5,400 00 

. 4,500 00 

. 4,080 00 

. 4,080 00 

. 3,400 00 

Cerium. 

. 3,400 00 

Didymium. 

. 3,200 00 

Indium.. 

. 3,200 00 

Ruthenium. 

. 2,400 00 

Rhodium. 

. 2,300 00 

Niobium. 

. 2,300 00 

Barium. 

. 1,800 00 

Palladium. 

. 1,400 00 

Osmium. 

. 1,300 00 

Iridium. 

. 1,090 00 

Uranium. 

. 900 00 

Titanium. 

. 689 00 

Chromium. 

. 500 00 


Price per 
Av. pound. 


Gold... $ 330 00 

Molybdenum. 225 00 

Thallium. 225 00 

Platinum. 150 00 

Manganese. 130 00 

Tungstein. 115 00 

Magnesium. 64 00 

Potassium. 4 00 

Aluminum. 32 00 

Silver. 20 00 

Cobalt. 16 00 

Sodium. 8 00 

Nickel. 5 00 

Cadmium. 4 00 

Bismuth. 2 50 

Mercury. 95 

Arsenic. 50 

Tin. 25 

Copper .. 25 

Antimony. 16 

Zinc. 11 

Lead. 08 


VALUE OP METALS AS CONDUCTORS. 


Gold. 

Heat. 

Electricity. 

Iron. 

Heat. 

Electricity. 

.100 

94 

. 37 

16 

Platinum. 

. 98 

16 

Zinc. 

. 36 

29 

Silver. 

. 97 

74 

Tin. 

. 30 

15 

Copper........ 


100 

Lead. 

. 18 

8 


TENACITY OF METALS. 

A wire, 0.84. of a line in diameter, will sustain weights as 
follows: 


Lead. 28 lbs. 

Tin. 35 “ 

Zinc. 110 " 

Gold.150 “ 


Silver.187 lbs. 

Platinum. 274 " 

Copper. 302 « 

Iron. 549 •« 


FLUID DENSITY OF METALS. 


Zinc 

Iron 

Tin. 


6.48 

6.88 

7.03 


Copper 
Silver.. 
Lead.. 


362 


8.22 

9.51 

10.37 















































































TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES 

OF 

ALL NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 500. 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

1 

1 

1 

55 

30 25 

166 375 

2 

4 

8 

56 

31 36 

175 616 

3 

9 

27 

57 

32 49 

185 193 

4 

16 

64 

58 

33 64 

195 112 

5 

25 

1 25 

59 

34 81 

205 379 

6 

36 

2 16 

60 

36 00 

216 000 

7 

49 

3 43 

61 

37 21 

226 981 

8 

64 

5 12 

62 

38 44 

238 328 

9 

81 

7 29 

63 

39 69 

250 047 

10 

1 00 

1 000 

64 

40 96 

262 144 

11 

1 21 

1 331 

65 

42 25 

274 626 

12 

1 44 

1 728 

66 

43 56 

287 496 

13 

1 69 

2 197 

67 

44 89 

300 763 

14 

1 96 

2 744 

68 

46 24 

314 432 

15 

2 25 

3 375 

69 

47 61 

328 509 

16 

2 56 

4 096 

70 

49 00 

343 000 

17 

2 89 

4 913 

71 

50 41 

357 911 

18 

3 24 

6 832 

72 

51 84 

373 248 

19 

3 61 

6 859 

73 

53 29 

389 017 

20 

4 00 

8 000 

74 

54 76 

405 224 

21 

4 41 

9 261 

75 

56 25 

421 875 

22 

4 84 

10 648 

76 

57 76 

438 976 

23 

5 29 

12 167 

77 

59 29 

456 533 

24 

6 76 

13 824 

78 

60 84 

474 552 

25 

6 25 

15 625 

79 

62 41 

493 039 

26 

6 76 

17 576 

80 

64 00 

512 000 

27 

7 29 

19 683 

81 

65 81 

531 441 

28 

7 84 

21 952 

82 

67 24 

551 368 

29 

8 41 

24 389 

83 

68 89 

571 787 

30 

9 00 

27 000 

84 

70 56 

592 704 

31 

9 61 

29 791 

85 

72 25 

614 125 

32 

10 24 

32 768 

86 

73 96 

636 056 

33 

10 89 

35 937 

87 

75 69 

658 503 

34 

11 56 

39 304 

88 

77 44 

681 472 

35 

12 25 

42 875 

89 

79 21 

704 969 

36 

12 96 

46 656 

90 

81 00 

729 000 

37 

13 69 

60 653 

91 

82 81 

753 571 

38 

14 44 

54 872 

92 

84 64 

778 688 

39 

15 21 

59 319 

93 

86 49 

804 357 

40 

16 00 

64 000 

94 

88 36 

830 584 

41 

16 81 

68 921 

95 

90 25 

857 375 

42 

17 64 

74 088 

96 

92 16 

884 736 

43 

18 49 

79 507 

97 

94 09 

912 673 

44 

19 36 

85 184 

98 

96 04 

941 192 

45 

20 25 

91 125 

99 

98 01 

970 299 

46 

21 16 

97 336 

100 

1 00 00 

1 000 000 

47 

22 09 

103 823 

101 

1 02 01 

1 030 301 

48 

23 04 

110 592 

102 

1 04 04 

1 061 298 

49 

24 01 

117 649 

103 

1 06 09 

1 092 727 

50 

25 00 

125 000 

104 

1 08 16 

1 124 864 

51 

26 01 

132 651 

105 

1 10 25 

1 157 625 

52 

27 04 

140 608 

106 

1 12 36 

1 191 016 

63 

28 09 

148 877 

107 

1 14 49 

1 225 043 

54 

29 16 

157 464 

108 

1 16 64 

1 259 712 


363 






















No, 

109 

110 

111 

112 

113 

114 

115 

116 

117 

118 

119 

120 

121 

122 

123 

124 

125 

126 

127 

128 

129 

130 

131 

132 

133 

134 

135 

136 

137 

138 

139 

140 

141 

142 

143 

144 

145 

146 

147 

148 

149 

150 

151 

152 

153 

154 

155 

156 

157 

158 

159 

160 

161 

162 

163 

164 

165 

166 

167 

168 


OF SQUARES AND CUBES— Continued. 


Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

1 295 029 

169 

2 85 61 

4 826 809 

1 331 000 

170 

2 89 00 

4 913 000 

1 367 631 

171 

2 92 41 

5 000 211 

1 404 928 

172 

2 95 84 

5 088 448 

1 442 897 

173 

2 99 29 

5 177 717 

1 481 544 

174 

3 02 76 

5 268 024 

1 520 875 

175 

3 06 25 

5 359 375 

1 560 896 

176 

3 09 76 

5 451 7^6 

1 601 613 

177 

3 13 29 

5 545 233 

1 643 032 

178 

3 16 84 

5 639 752 

1 685 159 

179 

3 20 41 

5 735 339 

1 728 000 

180 

3 24 00 

5 832 000 

1 771 561 

181 

3 27 61 

5 929 741 

1 815 848 

182 

3 31 24 

6 028 568 

1 860 867 

183 

3 34 89 

6 128 487 

1 906 624 

184 

3 38 56 

6 229 504 

1 953 125 

185 

3 42 25 

6 331 625 

2 000 376 

186 

3 45 96 

6 434 856 

2 048 383 

187 

3 49 69 

6 539 203 

2 097 152 

188 

3 53 44 

6 644 672 

2 146 689 

189 

3 57 21 

6 751 269 

2 197 000 

190 

3 61 00 

6 859 000 

2 248 091 

191 

3 64 81 

6 967 871 

2 299 968 

192 

3 68 64 

7 077 888 

2 352 637 

193 

3 72 49 

7 189 057 

2 406 104 

194 

3 76 36 

7 301 384 

2 460 375 

195 

3 80 25 

7 414 875 

2 515 456 

196 

3 84 16 

7 529 536 

2 571 353 

197 

3 88 09 

7 645 373 

2 628 072 

198 

3 92 04 

7 762 392 

2 685 619 

199 

3 96 01 

7 880 599 

2 744 000 

200 

4 00 00 

8 000 000 

2 803 221 

201 

4 04 01 

8 120 601 

2 863 288 

202 

4 08 04 

8 242 408 

2 924 207 

203 

4 12 09 

8 365 427 

2 985 984 

204 

4 16 16 

8 489 664 

3 048 625 

205 

4 20 35 

8 615 125 

3 112 136 

206 

4 24 36 

8 741 816 

3 176 523 

207 

4 28 49 

8 869 743 

3 241 792 

208 

4 32 64 

8 998 912 

3 307 949 

209 

4 36 81 

9 129 329 

3 375 000 

210 

4 41 00 

9 261 000 

3 442 951 

211 

4 45 21 

9 393 931 

3 511 808 

212 

4 49 44 

9 528 128 

3 581 577 

213 

4 53 69 

9 663 597 

3 652 264 

214 

4 57 96 

9 800 344 

3 723 875 

215 

4 62 25 

9 93S 375 

3 796 416 

216 

4 66 56 

10 077 646 

3 869 893 

217 

4 70 89 

10 218 313 

3 944 312 

218 

4 75 24 

10 360 232 

4 019 679 

219 

4 79 61 

10 503 459 

4 096 000 

220 

4 84 00 

10 648 000 

4 173 281 

221 

4 88 41 

10 793 861 

4 251 528 

222 

4 92 84 

10 941 048 

4 330 747 

223 

4 97 29 

11 089 567 

4 410 944 

224 

5 01 76 

11 239 424 

4 492 125 

225 

5 06 25 

11 390 625 

4 574 296 

226 

5 10 76 

11 543 176 

4 657 463 

227 

5 15 29 

11 697 083 

4 741 632 

228 

5 19 84 

11 852 352 


304 






















TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES —Continued. 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

229 

5 24 41 

12 008 989 

289 

8 35 21 

24 137 569 

230 

5 29 00 

12 167 000 

290 

8 41 00 

24 389 000 

231 

5 33 61 

12 326 391 

291 

8 46 81 

24 642 171 

232 

5 38 24 

12 487 168 

292 

8 52 64 

24 897 088 

233 

5 42 89 

12 649 337 

293 

8 58 49 

25 153 757 

234 

5 47 56 

12 812 904 

294 

8 64 36 

25 412 184 

235 

5 52 25 

12 977 875 

295 

8 70 25 

25 672 375 

236 

5 56 96 

13 144 256 

296 

8 76 16 

25 934 336 

237 

5 61 69 

13 312 053 

297 

8 82 09 

26 198 073 

238 

5 66 44 

13 481 272 

298 

8 88 04 

26 463 592 

239 

5 71 21 

13 651 919 

299 

8 94 01 

26 730 899 

240 

5 76 00 

13 824 000 

300 

9 00 00 

27 000 000 

241 

5 80 81 

13 997 521 

301 

9 06 01 

27 270 901 

242 

5 85 64 

14 172 4S8 

302 

9 12 04 

27 543 608 

213 

5 90 49 

14 348 907 

303 

9 18 09 

27 818 127 

244 

5 95 36 

14 526 784 

304 

9 24 16 

28 094 464 

245 

6 00 25 

14 706 125 

305 

9 30 25 

28 372 625 

246 

6 05 16 

14 886 936 

306 

9 36 36 

28 652 616 

247 

6 10 09 

15 069 223 

307 

9 42 49 

28 934 443 

248 

6 15 04 

15 252 992 

308 

9 48 64 

29 218 112 

249 

6 20 01 

15 438 249 

309 

9 54 81 

29 503 629 

250 

6 25 05 

15 625 000 

310 

9 61 00 

29 791 000 

251 

6 30 01 

15 813 251 

311 

9 67 21 

30 080 231 

252 

6 35 04 

16 003 008 

312 

9 73 44 

30 371 328 

253 

6 40 09 

16 194 277 

313 

9 79 69 

30 664 297 

254 

6 45 16 

16 387 064 

314 

9 85 96 

30 959 144 

255 

6 50 25 

16 581 375 

315 

8 92 25 

31 255 875 

256 

6 55 36 

16 777 216 

316 

9 98 56 

31 554 496 

257 

6 60 49 

16 974 593 

317 

10 04 89 

31 855 013 

258 

6 65 64 

17 173 512 

318 

10 11 24 

32 157 432 

259 

6 70 81 

17 373 979 

319 

10 17 61 

32 461 759 

260 

6 76 00 

17 576 000 

320 

10 24 00 

32 768 000 

261 

6 81 21 

17 779 581 

321 

10 30 41 

33 076 161 

262 

6 86 44 

17 984 728 

322 

10 36 84 

33 386 248 

263 

6 91 69 

18 191 447 

323 

10 43 29 

33 698 267 

264 

6 96 96 

18 399 744 

324 

10 49 76 

34 012 224 

265 

7 02 25 

18 609 625 

325 

10 56 25 

34 328 125 

266 

7 06 56 

18 82L 096 

326 

10 62 76 

34 645 976 

267 

7 12 89 

19 034 163 

327 

10 69 29 

34 965 783 

268 

7 18 24 

19 248 832 

328 

10 75 84 

35 287 552 

269 

7 23 61 

19 465 109 

329 

10 82 41 

35 611 289 

270 

7 29 00 

19 683 000 

330 

10 89 00 

35 937 000 

271 

7 34 41 

19 902 511 

331 

10 95 61 

36 264 691 

272 

7 39 84 

20 123 648 

332 

11 02 24 

36 594 368 

273 

7 45 29 

20 346 417 

333 

11 08 89 

36 926 037 

274 

7 50 76 

20 570 824 

334 

11 15 56 

37 259 704 

275 

7 56 25 

20 796 875 

335 

11 22 25 

37 595 375 

276 

7 61 76 

21 024 576 

336 

11 28 96 

37 933 056 

277 

7 67 29 

21 253 933 

337 

11 35 69 

38 272 753 

278 

7 72 84 

21 484 952 

338 

11 42 44 

38 614 472 

279 

7 78 41 

21 717 639 

339 

11 49 21 

38 958 219 

280 

7 84 00 

21 952 000 

340 

11 56 00 

39 304 000 

281 

7 89 61 

22 188 041 

341 

11 62 81 

39 651 821 

282 

7 95 24 

22 425 768 

342 

11 69 64 

40 001 688 

283 

8 00 89 

22 665 187 

343 

11 76 49 

40 353 607 

284 

8 06 56 

22 906 304 

344 

11 83 36 

40 707 584 

285 

8 12 25 

23 149 125 

345 

11 90 25 

41 «63 625 

286 

8 17 96 

'23 393 656 

346 

11 97 16 

41 421 736 

287 

8 23 69 

23 639 903 

347 

12 04 09 

41 781 923 

288 

8 29 44 

23 887 872 

348 

12 11 04 

42 144 192 


365 























No 

349 

350 

351 

352 

353 

354 

355 

356 

357 

358 

359 

360 

361 

362 

363 

364 

865 

566 

367 

368 

369 

370 

371 

372 

373 

374 

375 

376 

377 

378 

379 

380 

381 

382 

383 

384 

385 

386 

387 

388 

389 

390 

391 

392 

393 

394 

395 

396 

397 

398 

399 

400 

401 

402 

403 

404 

405 

406 

407 

408 


OF SQUARES AND CUBES —Continued. 


Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

42 508 549 

409 

16 72 81 

68 417 929 

42 875 000 

410 

16 81 00 

68 921 000 

43 243 551 

411 

16 89 21 

69 426 531 

43 614 208 

412 

16 97 44 

69 934 528 

43 986 977 

413 

17 05 69 

70 444 997 

44 361 864 

414 

17 13 96 

70 957 914 

44 738 875 

415 

17 22 25 

71 473 375 

45 118 016 

416 

17 30 56 

71 991 296 

45 199 293 

417 

17 38 89 

72 511 713 

45 882 712 

418 

17 47 24 

73 034 632 

46 268 279 

419 

17 55 61 

73 560 059 

46 656 000 

420 

17 64 00 

74 088 000 

47 045 881 

421 

17 72 41 

74 618 461 

47 437 928 

422 

17 80 84 

75 151 448 

47 832 147 

423 

17 89 29 

75 686 967 

48 228 544 

424 

17 97 76 

76 225 024 

48 627 125 

425 

18 06 25 

76 766 625 

49 027 896 

426 

18 14 76 

77 308 776 

49 430 863 

427 

18 23 29 

77 854 483 

49 836 032 

428 

18 31 84 

78 402 752 

50 243 409 

429 

18 40 40 

78 953 589 

50 653 000 

430 

18 49 00 

79 607 000 

51 064 811 

431 

18 57 61 

80 062 991 

51 478 848 

432 

18 66 24 

80 621 568 

51 895 117 

433 

18 74 89 

81 182 737 

52 313 624 

434 

18 83 56 

81 746 504 

52 734 375 

435 

18 92 25 

82 312 875 

53 157 376 

436 

19 00 96 

82 881 856 

53 582 633 

437 

19 09 69 

83 453 453 

54 010 152 

438 

19 18 44 

84 027 672 

54 439 939 

439 

19 27 21 

84 604 519 

54 872 000 

440 

19 36 00 

85 184 000 

55 306 341 

441 

19 44 81 

85 766 121 

55 742 968 

442 

19 53 64 

86 350 888 

56 181 887 

443 

19 62 49 

86 938 307 

56 623 104 

444 

19 71 36 

87 528 284 

56 066 625 

445 

19 80 25 

88 121 125 

57 512 456 

446 

19 89 16 

88 716 536 

57 960 603 

447 

20 98 09 

89 314 623 

68 411 072 

448 

20 07 04 

89 915 392 

58 863 869 

449 

20 16 01 

90 518 849 

59 319 000 

450 

20 25 00 

91 125 000 

59 776 471 

451 

20 34 01 

91 733 751 

60 236 288 

452 

20 43 04 

92 345 408 

60 698 457 

453 

20 52 09 

92 959 677 

61 162 984 

454 

20 61 16 

93 576 664 

61 629 875 

455 

20 70 25 

94 196 375 

62 099 136 

456 

20 79 36 

94 818 816 

62 570 773 

457 

20 88 49 

95 443 993 

63 044 792 

458 

21 97 64 

96 071 912 

63 521 199 

459 

21 06 81 

96 702 579 

64 000 000 

460 

21 16 00 

97 336 000 

64 481 201 

461 

21 25 21 

97 972 181 

64 964 808 

462 

21 34 44 

98 611 128 

65 450 827 

463 

21 43 69 

99 252 847 

65 939 264 

464 

21 62 96 

99 897 344 

66 430 125 

465 

21 62 25 

100 554 625 

66 923 416 

466 

21 71 56 

101 194 696 

67 419 143 

467 

21 80 89 

101 847 563 

67 917 321 

468 

21 90 24 

102 503 232 


366 


























TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES— Concluded. 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

4G9 

21 99 61 

103 161 709 

485 

23 52 25 

114 084 125 

470 

22 09 00 

103 823 000 

486 

23 61 96 

114 791 256 

471 

22 18 41 

104 487 111 

487 

23 71 69 

115 501 303 

472 

22 27 84 

105 154 048 

488 

23 81 44 

116 214 572 

473 

22 37 29 

105 823 817 

489 

23 91 21 

116 930 169 

474 

22 46 76 

106 496 424 

490 

24 01 00 

117 649 000 

475 

22 56 25 

107 171 875 

491 

24 10 81 

118 370 771 

476 

22 65 76 

107 850 176 

492 

24 20 61 

119 095 488 

477 

22 75 29 

103 531 333 

493 

24 30 49 

119 823 157 

478 

22 84 84 

109 215 352 

494 

24 40 36 

120 553 784 

479 

22 94 41 

109 902 239 

495 

24 50 25 

121 287 375 

480 

23 04 00 

110 592 000 

496 

24 60 16 

122 023 936 

481 

23 13 61 

111 284 641 

497 

24 70 09 

122 763 473 

482 

23 23 24 

111 980 168 

498 

24 80 04 

123 505 992 

483 

23 32 89 

112 678 587 

499 

24 90 01 

124 251 499 

484 

23 42 56 

113 379 904 

500 

25 00 00 

125 000 000 


LENGTH OF CIRCULAR ARC. 
Huygens’ approximation to length of a circular arc: 
A = Chord of any circular arc. 

B = Chord of half that arc. 

R = Radius of the circular arc. 

L = Length of the circular arc. 

Then L= 8B—A 

3 

Or, as it is usually written, 


L = 2 B + % (2 B — A). 


WEDDING ANNIVERSARIES. 

First, cotton; second, paper; third, leather; fifth, wooden; 
seventh, woolen; tenth, tin; twelfth, silk and fine linen; fifteenth, 
crystal; twentieth, china; twenty-fifth, silver; thirtieth, pearl; 
fortieth, ruby; fiftieth, golden; seventy-fifth, diamond. 

YOUR BIRTHDAY. 

Born on Monday, fair in face; 

Born on Tuesday, full of God’s grace', 

Born on Wednesday, the best to be had; 

Born on Thursday, merry and glad; 

Born on Friday, worthily given; 

Born on Saturday, work hard for a living; 

Born on Sunday, shall never know want. 

An indenture is a deed or instrument in writing. Originally 
such writings were made in duplicate upon a sheet of paper which was afterwards 
indented or cut apart in a waved or notched line. One piece was given to each of 
the parties to the contract, and when the two were put together they would, of 
course, fit into each other exactly. This mode of indenture has passed out of use, 
but the term survives. 


367 



















bi 

v 

p 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 


bi 

v 

P 

90 

89 

88 

87 

86 

85 

84 

83 

82 

81 

80 

79 

78 

77 

76 

75 

74 

73 

72 

71 

70 

69 

68 

67 

66 

65 

64 

63 

62 

61 

60 

59 

58 

57 

66 

55 

54 

53 

52 

51 

50 

49 

48 

47 

46 

45 

ey- 

Dn a 

ntle- 

ank- 


NATURAL SINES, ETC. 


Sine. Cover. 


.00 

.01745 
.03489 
.05233 
.06975 
.08715 
.10452 
.12186 
.13917 
.15643 
.17364 
.19080 
.20791 
.22495 
.24192 
.25881 
.27563 
.29237 
.3C901 
.32556 
.34202 
.35836 
.37460 
.39073 
.40673 
.42261 
.43837 
.45399 
.46947 
.48480 
.50000 
.51503 
.52991 
.51463 
.55919 
.57357 
.58778 
.60181 
.61566 
.62932 
.64278 
.65605 
.66913 
.68199 
.69465 
.70710 


1.00000 

.98254 

.96510 

.94766 

.93024 

.91284 

.89547 

.87813 

.86082 

.84356 

.82635 

.80919 

.79208 

.77504 

.75807 

.74118 

.72436 

.70762 

.69098 

.67443 

.65797 

.64163 

.62539 

.60926 

.59326 

.57738 

.56162 

.54600 

.53052 

.51519 

.50000 

.48496 

.47008 

.45536 

.44080 

.42642 

.41221 

.39818 

.38433 

.37067 

.35721 

.34394 

.33086 

.31800 

.30534 

.29289 


Versin. 


Cosecnt. 


Infinite. 

57.2986 

28.6537 

19.1073 

14.3355 

11.4737 

9.5667 

8.2055 

7.1852 

6.3924 

5.7587 

5.2408 

4.8097 

4.4454 

4.1335 

3.8637 

3.6279 

3.4203 

3.2360 

3.0715 

2.9238 

2-7904 

2.6694 

2.5593 

2.4585 

2.3662 

2.2811 

2.2026 

2.1300 

2.0626 

2.0000 

1.9416 

1.8870 

1.8360 

1.7882 

1.7434 

1.7013 

1.6616 

1.6242 

1.5890 

1.5557 

1.5242 

1.4944 

1.4662 

1.4395 

1.4142 


Secant. 


Tangt. 

Cotang. 

Secant. 

Versin, 

.0 

Infinite. 

1.00000 

.0 

.01745 

57.2899 

1.00015 

.O001 

.03492 

28.6362 

1.00060 

.0006 

.05240 

19.0811 

1.00137 

.0013 

.06992 

14.3006 

1.00244 

.0024 

.08748 

11.4300 

1.00381 

.0038 

.10510 

9.5143 

1.00550 

.0054 

.12278 

8.1443 

1.00750 

.0074 

.14054 

7.1153 

1.00982 

.0097 

.15838 

6.3137 

1.01246 

.0123 

.17632 

5.6712 

1.01542 

.0151 

.19438 

5.1445 

1.01871 

.0183 

.21255 

4.7046 

1.02234 

.0218 

.23086 

4.3314 

1.02630 

.0256 

.24932 

4.0107 

1.03061 

.0297 

.26794 

3.7320 

1.03527 

.0340 

.28674 

3.4874 

1.04029 

.0387 

.30573 

3.2708 

1.04569 

.0436 

.32491 

3.0776 

1.05146 

.0489 

.34432 

2.9042 

1.05762 

.0544 

.36397 

2.7474 

1.06417 

.0603 

.38386 

2.6050 

1.07114 

.0664 

.40402 

2.4750 

1.07853 

.0728 

.42447 

2.3558 

1.08636 

.0794 

.44522 

2.2460 

1.09463 

.0864 

.46630 

2.1445 

1.10337 

.0936 

.48773 

2.0503 

1.11260 

.1012 

.50952 

1.9626 

1.12232 

.1089 

.53170 

1.8807 

1.13257 

.1170 

.55430 

1.8040 

1.14335 

.1253 

.57735 

1.7320 

1.15470 

.1339 

.60086 

1.6642 

1.16663 

.1428 

.62486 

1.6003 

1.17917 

.1519 

.64940 

1.5398 

1.19236 

.1613 

.67450 

1.4825 

1.20621 

.1709 

.70020 

1.4281 

1.22077 

.1808 

.72654 

1.3763 

1.23606 

.1909 

.75355 

1.3270 

1.25213 

.2013 

.78128 

1.2799 

1.26901 

.2119 

.80978 

1.2348 

1.28675 

.2228 

.83909 

1.1917 

1.30540 

.2339 

.86928 

1.1503 

1.32501 

.2452 

.90040 

1.1106 

1.34563 

.2568 

.93251 

1.0723 

1.36732 

.2686 

.96568 

1.0355 

1.39016 

.2806 

1.00000 

1.0000 

1.41421 

.2928 

Cotang. 

Tangt. 

Cosecnt. 

Cover. 


1.00000 

.99984 

.99939 

.99862 

.99756 

.99619 

.99452 

.99254 

.99026 

.98768 

.98480 

.98162 

.97814 

.97437 

.97029 

.96592 

.96126 

.95630 

.95105 

.94551 

.93969 

.93358 

.92718 

.92050 

.91354 

.90630 

.89879 

.89100 

.88294 

.87461 

.86602 

.85716 

.84804 

.83867 

.82903 

.81915 

.80901 

.79863 

.78801 

.77714 

.76604 

.75470 

.74314 

.73135 

.71933 

.70710 


n bankrupt originated in connection with ti 
ily. They sat in the market-place with their money di< 
c, as it was called) before them. When one of these fina 
banc (or bench) was said to be broken, and he was s 
odern bank inherits its name from the unimposing ] 
iseval Italy, 


368 

































Useful Information for Printers and Publishers. 


Standard Newspaper Measure. 

The standard newspaper measure, as recognized and now in 
general use, is 13 ems pica. The standard of measurement of 
all sizes of type is the em quad, not the letter m. 

Leads and Slugs. 

Leads are designated as “—to-pica,” the number being that 
fraction of a pica which the lead is, viz.: a 6-to-pica lead is one- 
sixth of a pica in thickness, or six 6-to-pica’s are equal to one 
pica; four 4-to-plca’s one pica, and so with other sizes or thick¬ 
nesses of leads. 

Slugs —“Leads” of nonpareil thickness and greater are called 
slugs, viz.: nonpareil slugs, brevier slugs, pica slugs, etc. 

Average Weight of Matter. 

A “piece” of solid matter 13 ems pica wide and 6 inches long 
will weigh about 3% lbs., but, in order to allow for the sorts 
usually remaining in case, 4% lbs. of type would be required to 
set that amount of solid matter. When the matter is to be leaded 
the weight of the type may be reduced about one-quarter, i. e., a 
single column of six-column folio, solid, will weigh 10% lbs., re¬ 
quiring about 13 lbs. of type, while the same length column, 
leaded with 6-to-pica leads, will contain but 7% lbs. solid matter, 
requiring about 10 lbs. of type to set the same. 

Example —A single page of regular six-column folio or quarto 
(13x19%) contains 256% square inches of matter: 

2 5^%X4(square inches of 4 % lbs. of type) =86-]-, 
the number of pounds of type required to set that amount of mat¬ 
ter, including sorts in case. 

How to Estimate for Body Type. 

To estimate the quantity of type (solid) necessary to fill a 
given space, multiply the number of square inches by 5% (esti¬ 
mated weight, in ounces, of one square inch of matter, including 
sorts in case) divide the product by 16, and the result will be the 
weight of type required. If leaded, a reduction in weight of 
type may be made as above. 

Example —A single page of regular six-column folio or quarto 
(13x19%) contains 256% square inches of matter: 

2 5 6 %X5K-^ i6==86 +> 

the number of pounds of type required to set that amount of 
matter, including sorts in case. 

Miscellaneous Information. 

The following table gives the number of “ems” in a space 
6x13 ems pica, also the average number of “ems” in 4 ounces: 


Number of Ems in 

Pearl 

Agate 

No’pl 

Min’n 

Brev’r 

Bourg 

Lg. Pr 

Sm. Pi 

Pica 

6x13 Ems Pica. 

449% 

368% 

312 

230% 

177 

138% 

112% 

92 

78 

4 Ounces. 

196 

165 

132 

100 

78 

61 

51 

43 

35 


369 



























Newspaper Measurement. 

Table showing the number of ems of the different sizes of 
newspaper type in a line, the number of lines necessary to make 
i,ooo ems, and the length in inches. Also the number of ems 
in the regular lengths of columns: 


13 Ems Pica, 

WIDTH OF 

Standard Column. 

No. Ems 

in line. 

No. Lines | 

1,000 Ems. j 

No. Inch’s 

1,000 Ems. 

+ Col. Folio, 

or Quarto. 

No. Ems 

in Column. 

5Col. Folio, 

or Quarto. 

Ems in Col. 

6 Col. Folio, 

or Quarto. 

Ems in Col. 

7 Col. Folio. 

or Quarto. 

Ems in Col 

8 Col. Folio, 

Ems in Col. 

9 Col. Folio, 

Ems in Col. 

Agate. 

28% 

35J4 

2% 

5,040 

6,505 

7,180 

7,900 

8,630 

9,310 

Nonpareil. 

26 

38^ 

334 

4,325 

5,615 

6,160 

6,785 

7,410 

8,020 

Minion . 

2214 

45 

4% 

3,175 

4,115 

4,515 

4,970 

5,440 

5,885 

Brevier. 

1934 

5134 

5% 

2,465 

3,200 

3,510 

3,865 

4,220 

4,575 

Bourgeois. 

17% 

57 % 

734 

1,950 

2,525 

2,770 

3,050 

3,330 

3,615 

Long Primer.. 

15% 

64 % 

9 

1,610 

2,085 

2,290 

2,520 

2,755 

2,970 


Leads for Newspapers. 

Table showing the number of leads, 13 ems pica long, con¬ 
tained in one pound, and the number required to lead 1,000 ems 
of matter; together with the number of leads in a single col¬ 
umn of matter, regular sizes of newspapers: 


Size of Body Type 
to be Leaded with 
6-to-Pica Leads. 

No. Leads 
to pound. 

No. Leads 
1,000 Ems. 

4 Col. Fol. 
or Quarto. 
Leads in 
Column. 

5 Col. Fol. 
or Quarto. 
Leads in 
Column. 

6 Col. Fol. 
or Quarto. 
Leads in 
Column. 

7 Col. Fol. 
or Quarto. 
Leads in 

Column. 

8 Col. Fol. 

Leads in 

C olumn. 

9 Col. Fol. 

Leads in 

Column. 

Agate. 

60 

26 

132 

170 

185 

206 

224 

241 

Nonpareil. 

60 

29 

125 

162 

179 

197 

215 

233 

Minion... 

60 

34 

108 

140 

154 

169 

185 

201 

Brevier. 

60 

40 

99 

123 

141 

155 

169 

183 

Bourgeois. 

60 

45 

88 

114 

125 

138 

1,50 

163 

Long Primer. 

60 

52 

84 

108 

119 

131 

143 

154 


Book Work Measurement. 

Table showing the number of ems to a line, and the number 
of lines contained in 1,000 ems of matter, standard book meas¬ 
ure. Also, the space, in inches, filled by 1,000 ems of matter of 
the different measures: 


Size of Type. 

2i Ems Pica. 

23 Ems Pica. 

25 Ems Pica. 

No. Ems 
in Line. 

No. Lines 
1,000 Ems. 

No. Inch’s 
1,000 Ems. 

No. Ems 
in Line. 

No. Lines 
1,000 Ems. 

No. Inch’s 
1,000 Ems. 

No. Ems 
in Line. 

No. Lines 
1,000 Ems. 

No. Inch’s 
1,000 Ems. 

Nonpareil. 

Brevier. 

Long Primer. 

Small Pica. 

Pica. 

42 

3134 

2534 

23 

21 

24 

3234 

3934 

4334 

48 

2 

334 

534 

6% 

8 

46 

35 

27% 

25 

23 

21% 

28% 

36 

40 

4334 

1% 

334 

5 

634 

734 

50 

3734 

30 

2734 

25 

20 

2634 

3334 

36% 

40 

VCO \®\®V0 
C4\ tfs\iO\CT\ 
r—i CO tO >0 





























































































Leads for BookWork. 

Number of 4-to-pica and 6-to-pica leads, standard book 
measures, contained in one pound, and number required to lead 
1,000 ems of matter of the standard sizes of book type: 


25 EMS. 

23 EMS. 

21 EMS. 

The columns of figures on the right 
give the number of leads required 
to lead 1,000 ems of matter of the 
sizes of type named. Those on 
the left, the number of leads in 
one pound. 

Nonpareil, j 

Brevier. 

a 

'C 

Ps 

bi> 

t-1 

Small Pica. 

Pica. 

No. 

Leads to 
Pound. 

No. 

Leads to 
Pound. 

No. 

Leads to 
Pound. 




1 

( 21 Ems P’a long 

17 

25 

33 

36 

41 

31 

34 

37 


^ 4 -to-Pica.23 “ “ “ 

15 

23 

30 

34 

37 





1.25 " “ “ 

13 

21 

27 

32 

33 




1 

(21 “ “ “ 

16 

23 

30 

33 

39 

21 

23 

25 


^6-to-Pica...< 23. 

14 

21 

27 

31 

35 




J 

(25.. 

12 

19 

25 

28 

31 


Sizes of Newspapers* 

TERM. 

Five-column Folio - 

Six-column Folio ----- 

Six-column Folio, extra margin 

Seven-column Folio. 

Seven-column Folio, extra margin 
Eight-column Folio - 
Nine-column Folio - 
Four-column Quarto - 

Five-column Quarto - 
Six-column Quarto - 

Seven-column Quarto - 


SIZE. 

20 x 26 inches 
22 x 31 inches 
22 x 32 inches 
24 x 35 inches 
24 x 36 inches 
26 x 40 inches 
28 x 44 inches 
22 x 31 inches 
26 x 40 inches 
30 x 44 inches 
35 x 48 inches 


Common Sizes of Flat Papers* 


NAME. 

SIZE. 

Flat Letter 

10 x 16 

Small Cap 

13 x 16 

Flat Cap - 

14 x 17 

Demy - 

16 x 21 

Folio 

17 x 22 


NAME. SIZE. 

Medium - - 18 x 23 

Double Small Cap - 16 x 26 
Royal - - 19 x 24 

Double Cap - 17 x 28 


MEASUREMENT BY SQUARE INCHES. 

With the following table the printer dispenses entirely with a 
type measure proper, resorting to the common inch rule. After 
getting the square inches in his job, he may take the figures 
directly from the table, or, if the square inches are in excess of 
the table, add two or more of the numbers together; as, for 
instance, 79 square inches of brevier, the seventh line gives 567 
ems for 7 inches, add a cipher and you have 5,670 ems for 70 

371 






























SQUARE-INCH TYPE MEASUREMENT . 

inches, and in the ninth line add 729 ems to the 5,670 ems, and 
you have a total of 6,399 ems 79 square inches. 

NUMBER OF EMS IN SQUARE INCHES. 

(Adapted to the Point System.) 


'C 



Pica. 

Small 

Pica. 

Long 

Primer 

Bour¬ 

geois. 

Brevier. 

Minion. 

Nonpa¬ 

reil. 

i sauare inch... 

36 

72 

108 

144 

180 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 

396 

432 

468 

504 

540 

576 

612 

648 

684 

720 

756 

792 

828 

864 

900 

936 

972 

1008 

1044 

1080 

1116 

1152 

1188 

1224 

1260 

1296 

1332 

1368 

1404 

1440 

1476 

1512 

1548 

1584 

1620 

1656 

1692 

1728 

1764 

1800 

44 

88 

132 

176 

220 

264 

308 

352 

396 

440 

484 

528 

672 

616 

660 

704 

748 

792 

803 

880 

924 

968 

1012 

1056 

1100 

1144 

1188 

1232 

1276 

1320 

1364 

1408 

1452 

1496 

1540 

1584 

1628 

1672 

1716 

1760 

1804 

1848 

1892 

1936 

1980 

2024 

2068 

2112 

2156 

2200 

52 

104 

156 

208 

260 

312 

364 

416 

468 

520 

572 

624 

676 

728 

780 

832 

884 

936 

988 

1040 

1092 

1144 

1196 

1248 

1300 

1352 

1404 

1456 

1508 

1560 

1612 

1664 

1716 

1768 

1820 

1872 

1924 

1976 

2028 

2080 

2132 

2184 

2236 

2^88 

2340 

2392 

2444 

2496 

2548 

2600 

64 

128 

192 

256 

320 

384 

448 

512 

576 

640 

704 

768 

832 

896 

960 

1024 

1088 

1152 

1216 

1280 

1344 

1408 

1472 

1536 

1600 

1664 

1728 

1792 

1856 

1920 

1984 

2048 

2112 

2176 

2240 

2304 

2368 

2432 

2496 

2560 

2624 

2688 

2752 

2816 

2880 

2944 

3008 

3072 

3136 

3200 

81 

162 

243 

324 

405 

486 

567 

648 

729 

810 

891 

972 

1053 

1134 

1215 

1296 

1377 

1458 

1539 

1620 

1701 

1782 

1863 

1944 

2025 

2106 

2187 

2268 

2349 

2430 

2511 

2592 

2673 

2754 

2835 

2916 

2997 

3078 

3159 

3240 

3321 

3402 

3483 

3564 

3645 

3726 

3807 

3888 

3969 

4050 

106 

212 

318 

424 

530 

636 

7^2 

848 

954 

1060 

1166 

1272 

1378 

1484 

1590 

1696 

1802 

1908 

2014 

2120 

2226 

2332 

2438 

2544 

2650 

2756 

2862 

2968 

3074 

3180 

3286 

3392 

3498 

3604 

3710 

3816 

3922 

4028 

4134 

4240 

4346 

4452 

4558 

4664 

4770 

4876 

4982 

5088 

5194 

5300 

144 

283 

432 

576 

720 

864 

1008 

1152 

1296 

1440 

1584 

1728 

1872 

2016 

2160 

2304 

2442 

2592 

2736 

2880 

3024 

3168 

3312 

3456 

3600 

3744 

3888 

4032 

4176 

4320 

4464 

4608 

4752 

4896 

5040 

5184 

5328 

5472 

5616 

5760 

5904 

6048 

6192 

6336 

6480 

6624 

6768 

6912 

7056 

7200 

2 “ inches. 

3 “ “ .... 

4 “ “ 

5 “ “ 

6 “ “ .... 

7 “ “ .... 

8 “ “ .... 

Q « 

10 “ “ !!” 

11 “ “ .... 

12 “ “ .... 

13 “ “ .... 

14 “ “ .... 

15 “ “ .... 

16 “ “ .... 

17 “ “ .... 

18 “ “ .... 

19 “ “ .... 

20 “ “ .... 

21 “ “ .... 

22 “ “ .... 

OO <• •< 

24 “ “ !.’!! 

25 “ “ .... 

26 “ “ .... 

27 “ “ .... 

28 ** “ .... 

29 “ “ .... 

30 “ “ .... 

31 “ “ .... 

32 “ “ .... 

33 “ “ .... 

34 “ “ .... 

35 “ “ .... 

36 “ “ .... 

37 “ “ .... 

38 “ “ .... 

39 “ “ .... 

40 “ “ .... 

41 “ “ .... 

42 “ “ .... 

43 “ “ .... 

44 “ “ .... 

45 “ “ .... 

46 “ “ .... 

47 “ “ .... 

48 “ “ .... 

49 “ “ .... 

50 “ “ .... 


372 





























SIZES OF BOOK AND PRINT PAPERS. 

TO FIND WEIGHT OF A GIVEN SIZE TO CORRESPOND WITH BULK OF SAMPLE. 

Rule —To find weight required for a given size to correspond in thickness with a 
given sample, multiply the weight of sample by the dimensions of sheet required, 
and divide by the product of the dimensions of sample. The table below gives all 
the regular sizes: 


Size and Weight 
of Sample. 

csi 

eo 

X 

8 

X 

8 

X 

8 

S 

X 

8 

28x42. 

0 

•<# 

X 

0 

CO 

00 

X 

0 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

22x32— 25 

— 

31 

34 

37 

42 

43 

68 

30 

— 

37 

40 

44 

50 

51 

82 

35 

— 

43 

47 

52 

58 

60 

95 

40 

— 

49 

54 

59 

67 

68 

109 

24x36— 30 

24 

- 

33 

36 

41 

42 

67 

35 

29 

— 

38 

42 

48 

49 

78 

40 

33 

— 

44 

48 

54 

56 

89 

45 

37 

— 

49 

54 

61 

62 

100 

50 

41 

— 

55 

60 

68 

69 

111 

60 

49 

— 

66 

72 

82 

83 

133 

25x38— 35 

26 

32 

■ 

38 

43 

44 

71 

40 

30 

36 

— 

44 

50 

51 

81 

50 

37 

45 

— 

55 

62 

63 

101 

60 

44 

55 

— 

66 

74 

76 

121 

70 

52 

64 

— 

77 

87 

88 

141 

80 

59 

73 

— 

88 

99 

101 

162 

28x42— 40 

24 

29 

32 

35 

— 

41 

65 

45 

27 

33 

36 

40 

— 

46 

73 

50 

30 

37 

40 

44 

— 

51 

82 

60 

36 

44 

48 

53 

— 

61 

98 

70 

42 

51 

57 

62 

— 

71 

114 

80 

48 

59 

65 

71 

— 

82 

131 

90 

54 

66 

74 

80 

— 

92 

147 

100 

60 

74 

82 

88 

— 

102 

163 

30x40— 40 

23 

29 

32 

35 

39 

— 

64 

50 

29 

36 

40 

43 

49 

— 

80 

60 

35 

43 

48 

52 

59 

— 

96 

70 

41 

50 

55 

61 

69 

— 

112 

80 

47 

58 

63 

69 

78 

— 

128 

90 

53 

65 

71 

78 

88 

— 

144 

100 

59 

72 

79 

87 

98 

— 

160 


For 32x44 (which is just double 22x32) multiply the figures of 22x32 by 2. Like* 
wise 38 x 50 is double 25 x 38 , etc. For odd sizes proceed as per rule above. 

373 





















WIND AND WEATHER SIGNALS 


On March i, 1887 , a new system of weather signals was intro¬ 
duced by the United States Signal Office of the War Department, and has since 
been in use at all the stations of the service. The flags adopted for this purpose are 
four in number, and of the form and dimensions indicated below: 


No. 1 . 
White Flag. 



Clear or fair 
:weather. 


No. 2 . 
Blue Flag. 



Rain 
or snow. 


No. 3 . 

Black Triangular 
Flag. 



Temperature 

signal. 


No. 4 . 

White Flag with 
black square in 
center. 



Cold wave. 


Example. 


Example. 


► 


BLUE 


Number 1 , white flag, six feet square, indicates clear or fair weather. Number 2 , 
blue flag, six feet square, indicates rain or snow. Number 3 , black triangular flag, 
four feet at the base and six feet in length, always refers to temperature; when 
placed above numbers 1 or 2 it indicates warmer weather; when placed below 
numbers 1 or 2 it indicates colder weather; when not displayed, the indications are 
that the temperature will remain stationary, 
or that the change in temperature will not 
vary five degrees from the temperature of the 
samehourof the preceding day. Number 4 , 
white flag, six feet square, with black square 
in center, indicates the approach of a sudden 
and decided fall in temperature. This signal 
is usually ordered at least twenty-four hours 
in advance of the cold wave. It is not dis¬ 
played unless a temperature of forty-five de¬ 
grees, or lower, is expected. When number 4 
is displayed, number 3 is always omitted. 

When displayed on poles, the signals are 
arranged to read downward; when displayed 
from horizontal supports, a small streamer is 
attached to indicate the point from which the 
signals are to be read. 

Interpretation of Displays. 

1 , alone, indicates fair weather, station¬ 
ary temperature. 

2 , alone, indicates rain or snow, station¬ 
ary temperature. 

1 , with No. 3 below it, indicates fair 
weather, colder. 

2 , with No. 3 above it, indicates warmer 
or snow. 

below it, indicates fair weather, cold wave. 




Cold wave, fol¬ 
lowed by rain 
or snow, suc¬ 
ceeded by fair 
weather; 
colder. 


No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 


BLUE 


Warmer, 
fair 
weather, 
followed 
by rain or 
snow. 


No, 

No. 


weather, rain 
1 , with No. 4 

3 , with Nos. 1 and 2 below it, indicates warmer, fair weather, followed by rain 
or snow. 


Storm, Cautionary and Wind-Direction Signals. 

A red flag with a black center indicates that the storm is expected to be ol 
marked violence. A yellow flag with a white center indicates that the winds ex¬ 
pected will not be so severe, but well-found; seaworthy vessels can meet them 
.Vithout danger. The red pennant indicates easterly winds; that is, from the north- 
ast to south inclusive, and that generally the storm center is approaching. If 

’ 374 









































WIND AND WEATHER SIGNALS 


above cautionary or storm-signal, winds from northeast quadrant are more probable; 
OtloTjjf winds from southeast quadrant. The white pennant indicates westerly 
winds; that is, from north to southwest inclusive, and that generally the storm 
center has passed. If above cautionary or storm-signal, winds from northeast 
quadrant are more probable; if below, winds from southwest quadrant. 



Storm. 


Cautionary. 


Easterly winds. 


White Pennant. 



Time Difference Between tlie City of New York and the Principal 

Foreign Cities. 


FASTER THAN N. Y. 




H. M. 


H. M. 

Dublin .... 

. 4 31 

Melbourne.... 

9 14 

Edinburgh 

. 4 43 

Paris. 

5 02 

Geneva... 

. 5 21 

Kio de Janeiro 2 03 

Hamburg. 

. 5 36 

Rome. 

5 46 

Liverpool.. 

. 4 44 

St. Petersburg. 

6 57 

London ... 

. 4 56 

Valparaiso.... 

10 

Madrid.... 

. 4 42 

Vienna. 

6 01 


H. M. 

Antwerp. 5 13 

Berlin. 5 50 

Bremen.5 31 

Brussels. 5 14 

Buenos Ayres. 1 02 

Calcutta.10 50 

Constantinople 6 53 

Actual New York mean time is given. 


SLOWER THAN N. Y. 

H. M. 

Canton.H 31 

Havana. 33 

Hong Kong.. .11 27 
Mexico, City of 1 40 

Panama. 12 

VeraCruz. 1 29 

Yokohama....10 45 


The Climates of the United States. 

Mean annual temperature, Fahrenheit, at places named. 


Mobile. 

66° 

46 

69 

63 

55 

Mississippi. 

Jackson . 

Sitka. 

Missouri. 

St. Louis. 

Tucson. 

Montana. 

Helena. 

Little Rock. 

Nebraska. 

Omaha. 

San Francisco.. 

Nevada. 

C’pWinfi’ld Scott 

Denver. 

48 

50 

47 

New Hampshire. 
New Jersey. 

Concord......... 

Hartford. 

Trenton. 

Fort Randall.... 

New Mexico.... 

Santa Fe. 

Willmington. 

53 

55 

69 

58 

52 

50 

51 
60 
49 
51 

New York. 

Albany.. 

Washington. 

North Carolina.. 

Raleigh. 

Jacksonville. 

Ohio. 

Columbus. 

Atlanta. 

Oregon. 

Portland .. 

Fort Boise. 

Pennsylvania.... 
Rhode Island.... 

Harrisburg. 

Springfield. 

Providence. 

Indianapolis. 

South Carolina... 

Columbia. 

Fort Gibson. 

Tennessee. 

Nashville........ 

Des Moines. 

T exas. 

Austin .. 

Leavenworth.... 

Utah. 

Salt Lake City... 

Louisville. 

56 

69 

45 

54 

48 

47 

42 

Vermont. 

Montpelier____ 

New Orleans .... 

Virginia. 

Richmond. 

Augusta. 

Baltimore. 

Washington T... 
West Virginia... 
Wisconsin ...... 

Steilacoom. 

Romney. 

Poston... 

Madison. 

Detroit. 

Wvomine.. 

Fort Bridger. 

St. Paul. 




Alabama. 

Alaska. 

Arizona. 

Arkansas. 

California. 

Colorado. 

Connecticut. 

Dakota. 

Delaware. 

Dist. Columbia .. 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Idaho. 

Illinois.. 

Indiana. 

Indian Territory. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Louisiana. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts... 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. 


64° 

55 

43 

49 

50 
45 
53 

51 
48 
59 
53 

53 

54 
48 
62 
58 
67 

52 
43 
57 

51 

52 
45 
41 


375 
































































































































THE WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY 


THE TELEPHONE. —The principle of the telephone, that sounds 

could be conveyed to a distance by a distended wire, was demonstrated by Robert 
Hook in 1667 , but no practical application was made of the discovery until 1821 , 
when Professor Wheatstone exhibited his “Enchanted Lyre,” in which the sounds 
of a music box were conveyed from a cellar to upper rooms. The first true discov¬ 
erer of the speaking telephone, however, was Johann Philipp Reis, a German sci¬ 
entist and professor in the institute of Friedrichsdorf. April 25 , 1861 , Reis exhib¬ 
ited his telephone at Frankfort. This contained all the essential features of the 
modern telephone, but as its commercial value w'as not at all comprehended, little 
attention was paid to it. Reis, after trying in vain to arouse the interest of scientists 
in his discovery, died in 1874 , without having reaped any advantage from it, and 
there is no doubt that his death was hastened by the distress of mind caused by his 
continual rebuffs. Meanwhile, the idea was being worked into more practical 
shape by other persons, Professor Elisha Gray and Professor A.G. Bell, and later by 
Mr. Edison. There is little doubt that Professor Gray’s successful experiments con¬ 
siderably antedated those of the others, but Professor Bell was the first to perfect 
his patent. February 12 , 1877 , Bell’s articulating telephone was tested by experi¬ 
ments at Boston and Salem, Mass., and was found to convey sounds distinctly from 
one place to the other, a distance of eighteen miles. This telephone was exhibited 
widely in this country and in Europe during that year, and telephone companies 
were established to bring it into general use. Edison’s carbon “loud-speaking” tel¬ 
ephone was brought out in 1878 . It is not worth while to go into details on the sub¬ 
ject of priority of invention. The Examiner of Patents at Washington, July 21 , 1883 , 
decided that Professor Bell was the first inventor, because he was the first to com¬ 
plete his invention and secure a full patent. Since 1878 there have been many im¬ 
provements in the different parts of the telephone, rendering it now nearly perfect 
in its working. 

THE PHONOGRAPH. —The principle of the phonograph is very 

simple. All sound is produced by vibrations of the air. Therefore, any sound 
whatever can be reproduced by reproducing its vibrations. The phonograph is re¬ 
garded as one of the wonders of the nineteenth century, and yet its foundation prin¬ 
ciple is as readily understood as the multiplication table, and its construction is sim¬ 
plicity itself. A small brass cylinder is made to turn on a metal shaft, and upon its 
surface is cut a spiral groove, corresponding to threads cut on the shaft. Over the 
cylinder is spread a sheet of tin foil, secured on its edges by some highly adhering 
substance. A crank attached to the shaft turns the cylinder, giving it at the same 
time a rotary and a horizontal motion. In front of the cylinder is a mouthpiece, hav¬ 
ing on its bottom (next the cylinder) a very thin plate or diaphragm of metal, to which 
is attached a round steel point. Before using the apparatus the steel point must be 
accurately adjusted opposite to that part of the foil lying over the spiral groove. If 
the lips are now applied to the mouthpiece and any sentence spoken, the crank at 
the same time being turned, the vibrations imparted to the metal plate by the voice 
will cause the steel point to come into contact with that part of the foil overlying the 
groove and to make on it a series of indentations as it revolves and is carried forward 
laterally before the mouthpiece. These indentations vary in depth and sectional 
outline according to the force and kind of vibrations made, and are in fact a tran¬ 
scription of the sounds. They are then translated by bringing the cylinder back to 
its starting-point and substituting for the mouthpiece a resonator. The steel is then 
held by a screw close to the foil, and as the cylinder moves the point retraces the in¬ 
dentations from beginning to end and communicates to the metal diaphragm the 
same vibrations which it had received from it, and these vibrations, communicated 
to the resonating apparatus, are reproduced as spoken words. If the crank is 
turned with exact regularity the exact pitch and tone of the speaker’s voice will 
also be given back. The phonograph was invented by Mr. Edison in 1877 and 
brought before the public early in the following year. The inventor believed that 
the numerous practical applications of this machine would commend it very largely 
to general use. This has not thus far proved to be the case, not because the instru¬ 
ment itself is lacking, for added experiment only proves its more remarkable possi¬ 
bilities, but probably because the invention is so wholly new and strange, so at vari¬ 
ance with anything previously known and understood, that men have not yet been 
able to comprehend its application to everyday affairs. jpg 



THE WONDERS OF ELECTRICITT. 


THE GRAPHOPHONE.—This invention is the work of Mr. Sum¬ 
ner Taintor, aided by Professor Bell, the telephone inventor. The machine is oper¬ 
ated on the principle of the phonograph. It is very simple and is free from mechan¬ 
ical complication. It has a treadle, and it looks very much like a small sewing- 
machine. Edison discovered the art of recording and reproducing sound, but his in¬ 
vention could not be used because of its clumsy mechanical arrangement, coupled 
with the very inferior and unsatisfactory methods of recording the sounds produced. 
He used a piece of timo.i upon which the sound waves were 
indented and from which they were easily obliterated. The present 
inventor, Mr. Taintor, saw that a iess destructible material was required, and 
after considerable experiment tried a preparation of wax and paraffine. This is the 
surface now used, and it works perfectly. He then made an entirely new apparatus, 
and the result is the graphophone, a machine which will sing a song, report a 
whistle, or give the quality and inflections of the voice in a most charming way. 
The small point which is attached to the diaphragm of the machine cuts a minute 
hair line in the wax surface. This line is so faint that it is scarcely perceptible to 
the naked eye, yet it serves to give a reproduction, so as to be distinctly heard by 
the listener, of a song, a laugh, or an ordinary speech. 

THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY.—Electricity may be applied to the 
propulsion of cars in two different ways. In one case the current is supplied to the 
electro-motors from storage batteries carried by the cars. This method requires no 
change in the ordinary roadbed used by the steam railway, but no means have yet 
been invented for making or operating ec onomically the storage battery required. 
In the second case the current is supplied to the motors on moving trains from sta¬ 
tions along the line of road through properly placed conductors. The method re¬ 
quires a peculiar construction of the road throughout with reference to the necessary 
electrical conditions. Several different forms of the electric railway are possible, 
depending on the method by which the current is conducted to the motors. By one 
method the two rails are used as conductors, the current going out by one rail and 
returning by the other, and passing to the electro-motors through the wheels of the 
train, which are insulated. There is much leakage or loss of power in this method, 
however, and its inventors have essayed to overcome by using a third rail or conduc¬ 
tor for the outgoing current, utilizing both rails for its return. We will briefly de¬ 
scribe the method of working the Siemens electric railway, which has been applied 
successfully to several short railway lines in Europe. The longest of these lines is 
that between Portrush and Bushmills, in the north of Ireland, which is six miles 
long. The line is a three-foot gauge, single track, laid at one side of the country 
road. The third rail, or conductor, is placed beside the roadbed, 17 inches above 
the ground. It is a T-rail carried upon insulator posts. The current is conveyed 
by the conductor to the car by means of two steel springs, one at each end. 
Wherever the railway crosses roads the conductor is carried underground. The 
current from the conducting rail passes through the car to the return rails by a 
switch worked by a lever—with which resistance coils can be placed in or out of 
circuit—then through the electro-motor to the wheels by whieh it reaches the rails. 
The motor is placed in the center of the car, beneath the floor, being connected with 
the axle of one pair of wheels by gearing. The reversing and brake levers are 
placed at each end of the car, so that it can be operated from either end. The rails 
of the track are laid in the usual manner, and are connected with the strips of cop¬ 
per to insure good electrical contact. In the Edison and Field railway, which was 
exhibited at the Chicago Exhibition of Railway Appliances, the same general plan 
was observed, but the conductor was placed between the two other rails, and the 
current was conveyed from this rail to the car through stiff wire brushes pressing on 
each side of the rail. These were operated by a lever reaching down from the car. 
This track was 1,553 feet 1° length. 

THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.—Setting aside natural phenomena, as 

the lightning and St. Elmo’s fire, and all mere experiments with the electric spark, 
the first inventor of the electric light was Sir Humphrey Davy, who in the early part 
of the century produced the arc light with a battery of 2,000 cells. The mode of 
producing this light is as follows: When the terminal wires of an electric battery 

377 


THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 


are brought together and then separated slightly an intense, bright light between 
them results, and this, because of its curved form, is called the electric arc. Thft 
light, in temperature as well as brightness, exceeds all other artificial sources of heat, 
by its means the hardest substances, even the diamond, being entirely consumed. 
The wires of the battery in this light melt and drop off in globules, but it was found 
that hard carbon points on the wireswould prevent this, as well as increase the in¬ 
tensity of the light. Davy used pieces of charcoal. Foucault, in his experiments 
in 1844 , used carbon from the retorts of gas-works, which is much harder. Foucault’s 
improvement led to the first practical use of the electric light. It was used to il¬ 
luminate the Place de la Concorde, in Paris, being placed on the knee of one of the 
statues there, and amazing all beholders with its brilliant power. The carbon 
points, though not destroyed as rapidly as wire, yet of course must waste in the con¬ 
suming heat of the light. In time the distance between them is increased until the 
light is interrupted, and they must be brought together again to renew the illumina¬ 
tion. Thomas Wright, of London, invented the first apparatus for moving the points 
automatically toward each other, a feature which now belongs to several forms of 
electric lighting. As it has been found that the positive carbon wastes more rapidly 
than the negative, that point is made to move over a wider space than the other in 
the same interval of time. 

In i 855 jules Duboscq’s electric lamp—thus far the most perfect of the kind—was 
shown at the Paris Exhibition, and Professor Tyndall, of England, adopted it for 
the illustration of his lectures on light and colors. In 1858 the works of the new 
Westminster bridge, London, were illuminated by Watson’s electric light, and the 
following year the magneto-electric light, invented by Professor Holmes, was suc¬ 
cessfully tried at the lighthouse at Dover. In 1861 the French Government pro¬ 
vided for the illumination of eight coast light-houses by the electric light. But, 
though improvements were made in the invention during the fifteen years following, 
little was accomplished toward practical electric lighting until the invention ol 
JablochkofFs candle. Paul JablochkofF was a Russian, who for his scientific knowL 
edge and skill had been appointed director of telegraph lines between Moscow and 
Kursk. He resigned this post in 1875 , desiring to devote his time wholly to scien- 
tific study. He intended to visit the Centennial Exhibition in this country in 1876 . 
but on his way hither stopped in Paris, where a noted chemist induced him to re- 
main by placing a large laboratory at his disposal. Here a few months later ha 
produced the electric candle, whose discovery made a great sensation. This con¬ 
sisted of two carbons placed side by side, separated and encased in an insulating 
and fusible substance. As the carbons wasted the fusible substance was also con¬ 
sumed. The light given by this candle was soft and steady, and a large number of 
them speedily came into use in Europe. It was quite overshadowed in importance, 
however, by the incandescent lamp, which was first invented about 1870 . The dif¬ 
ferent kinds of electric lights now in use may be divided into five groups, thus: 1 . 
Glow lamps or incandescent lamps, in which the light is produced by a bad conduc¬ 
tor in an uninterrupted circuit, the conductor itself being not directly consumed. 2 . 
Mixed or semi-incandescent lamps, in which the light is produced at the place of 
contact between two conductors, one of them being consumed more or less rapidly. 
3 . Regulated lamps, in which the light is formed by the voltaic arc, and the dis¬ 
tance of the carbons is continually regulated by clockwork or other means. 4 . 
Electric candles, having the carbons parallel, as above described. In each of these 
groups a series of different lamps have been invented, differing somewhat in details 
of construction. Thus we have, in the incandescent lamps, the Swan lamp, the 
Maxim lamp, the Edison lamp, the Siemens lamp, and others. We may briefly de¬ 
scribe the Edison as a type of the class. In this bamboo fiber is used for the carbon 
filament, and this is attached to platinum wire. By means of machinery the bam¬ 
boo is divided into small fibers, and pressed in U-shaped moulds, then put into 
ovens, where they are allowed to become carbonized. They are then attached to 
the plantinum wire and fused in a glass stopper. A glass tube is now blown into a 
bulb, the stopper is placed in it, and both bulb and stopper are fused together. 
The bulb is then exhausted of its air—for the electric light requires a vacuum 
for its brilliancy—and the opening at its apex is closed by fusing. The platinum 
wires of the lamp are connected with the copper wires from a battery, and the lamp 
Is ready for use. A very simple contrivance for breaking the current by turning a 

378 


STORAGE OF ELECTRICITY. 


key serves to ignite or extinguish the lamps. Each lamp is guaranteed to burn 800 
hours; after about that period both the platinum and the carbon are exhausted by 
slow combustion, and a new lamp must be fitted on. The principal difference be¬ 
tween the incandescent lamps is in the preparation of the carbon filament. Those 
for the Swan lamp are made from cotton fibers soaked in sulphuric acid, then packed 
in fine coal-dust, and exposed to heat. The Maxim lamp filaments are prepared 
from Bristol paper; those of the Lane-Fox lamp from hemp and coke; those of the 

? £rnstein lamp—one of the most brilliant made—are of silk carbonized in coal-dust. 

he half-incandescent lamps are quite a recent invention, the first being made in 
1878 . In these the light arises at the point of contact, and the essential features of 
the plan consist of a pencil of carbon pressed against a carbon block; as its point is 
consumed the pencil is pushed forward, thus rendering the light continuous. Some 
eight or nine different lamps have been invented on this plan. The regulated arc 
lamps include an even larger number of patents, of which the best known in this 
country is the Brush light. The lights in all these are formed between the points 
of the carbon rods, and the details of clockwork for moving forward the rods as they 
are consumed are too technical for description. Still another style of eleetric lamp 
has the carbons inclined at an angle to each other, and some very successful lamps, 
as the Soleil, have been made on this plan. It might be here noted that the great 
impetus given to the electric light by the work of Mr. Edison was not so much in 
improving the lamp as in cheapening the process of generating the electricity, and 
inventing a ready mode of dividing the light. Hitherto the expense attendant 
upon the production of the electric force, and the difficulty of using it simul¬ 
taneously at a large number of illuminating points, had been the two principal bar¬ 
riers in the way of applying the electric light to public use. 

STORAGE OF ELECTRICITY.—It must be noted, to begin with, 

that the term “storing electricity” conveys, usually, an altogether erroneous idea to 
the uninitiated. They are apt to conceive of it as pouring electricity into some re¬ 
ceptacle, as we pour oil into a lamp, to be used when needed. But, in fact, elec¬ 
tricity is an energy, not a substance, and therefore is not capable of storage, in the 
ordinary sense. .What is really done by the “storage” apparatus is to convert elec¬ 
tricity into chemical energy, under such circumstances that, by proper arrange¬ 
ments, it may be readily converted back into electricity. The secondary batteries 
used for the storing purpose are more correctly termed accumulators. The first bat¬ 
tery of this kind was made by Ritter about 1840 , and it consisted of a series of disks 
of a single metal, alternated with cloth or card moistened in a liquid by which the 
metal would not be affected chemically. In 1859 Mr. Gaston Plante made a sec¬ 
ondary battery, for which he used plates of lead, instead of plates of platinum. 
Passing a current through these, lead oxide was deposited, and after the charging 
current was removed, the lead and lead oxide were found to yield a very slight cur¬ 
rent. To increase this Plante devised the plan of first charging the plates, then 
discharging, then charging again with the battery current reversed.and soon,until,by 
repeated oxidations and subsequent reductions of the oxidized material, very porous 
plates were made. These, by their porosity, exposed a large surface to the oxidizing 
action of the current, so that a small porous plate took up as-much electricity as one 
of large superficial area. Plante found that by connecting a number of cells to¬ 
gether, and after charging them, arranging them in series, that is, the positive plate 
w>f one connected with the negative plate of another, and so on, he could store for 
use quite powerful currents of electricity. In 1880 another electrician, M. Camille 
Faure, devised the plan of coating Plante’s lead plates with red lead, and then en¬ 
casing them in flannel. The advantage of the red lead is that it is very quickly 
made porous, and therefore the process of repeated charging of the plates, known 
as the < # forming” process, was reduced from weeks to days, and even to hours. This 
discovery, by reducing the time and expense of making the secondary battery, gave 
it a commercial value thai it never had before, and it was hailed as a great advan¬ 
tage. Since that time a number of patents have been obtained tor storage batteries, 
and they now exist in different forms, but generally modeled on the inventions of 
Plante and Faure. The efforts of inventors have been mainly directed toward re¬ 
ducing the weight of the cells and to devising new ways of holding the red lead on 
the plates. This last-named substance, becoming porous, drops off readily, and for 


ELECTRICAL TERMS. 


this reason the encasements of flannel, etc., were first devised. In some of tne stor¬ 
age batteries, a plate, or frame, of cast lead is used, with receptacles, cells, etc., 
which are filled with the red lead. 

ELECTRICAL TERMS.—The technical terms used in regard to 

electricity refer to units of various nature. Thus the unit of capacity is one farad; the 
unit of activity, one watt; the unit of work one joule; the unit of quantity, one coul¬ 
omb; the unit of current, one ampere; the unit of resistance, one ohm; the unit of 
magnetic field, one gauss; the unit of pressure, one volt; the unit of force, one 
dyne. The names are mostly derived from the names of men that have been famous 
in the field of electrical research. Thus Michael Faraday, James Watt and James 
P. Joule, famous English discoverers, give their names to the first three units men¬ 
tioned; Charles A. Coulomb and Andre M. Ampere, French inventors, to the two 
units following; G. S. Ohm and Carl F. Gauss, Germans, name two more units; and 
the volt is named from the Italian discoverer, Volta. The dyne is derived from the 
root word of dynamo, itself meaning for ce. 

Preserving Wood. —There have been a number of processes 

patented for preserving wood. One of them, very generally used, consists in im¬ 
mersing the timber in a bath of corrosive sublimate. Another process consists in first 
filling the pores with a solution of chloride of calcium under pressure, and next 
forcing in a solution of sulphate of iron, by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is 
formed in the body of the wood, which is thus rendered nearly as hard as stone. 
Wood prepared in this way is now very largely used for railroad ties. Another pro¬ 
cess consists in impregnating the wood with a solution of chloride of zinc. Yet 
another way is to thoroughly impregnate the timber with oil of tar containing crea- 
sote and a crude solution of acetate of iron. The process consists in putting the 
wood in a cylindrical vessel, connected with a powerful air pump. The air is with¬ 
drawn, and the liquid subjected to pressure, so that as much of it as possible is 
forced into the pores of the wood. The processes above given not only season the 
timber so that it is not subject to dry rot, but also keep it from being injured by the 
weather, or being attacked by insects or worms. 

To Make Cloth Waterproof. —There have been various 

devices for rendering cloth waterproof without the use of India rubber. The most 
successful of these, no doubt, is the Stenhouse patent. This consists of the appli¬ 
cation of paraffine combined wit a drying oil. Paraffine was first used alone, but it 
was found to harden and break off from the cloth after a time. When drying oil 
was added, however, even in a very small quantity, it was found that the two sub¬ 
stances, by the absorption of oxygen, became converted into a tenacious substance 
very like resin. To apply this the paraffine is melted with drying oil, and then cast 
into blocks. The composition can then be applied to fabrics by rubbing them over 
with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed. Or the melted mixture may be 
applied with a brush and the cloth then passed through hot rollers in order to 
cover its entire substance perfectly. This application makes cloth very repellantto 
water, though still pervious to air. 

The Rule of the Road. —The “rule of the road” in the 

United states is “turn to the right;” in England it is the reverse. The rule holds in 
this country in the case where two vehicles going in opposite directions meet. 
When one vehicle overtakes another the foremost gives way to the left and the 
other passes by on the “offside;” and when a vehicle is crossing the direction of 
another it keeps to the left and crosses in its rear. These two rules are the same in 
this country and in England, and why the rule concerning meeting vehicles 
should have been changed it is impossible to say. We find this point of difference 
noted by all authorities, but no reason for it is ever suggested. Probably, as it is 
easier to turn to the right than to the left, it was adopted as the more preferable 
custom in some of the early colonies, and in due time became embodied in local 
law, and thus was handed down to later times. 

Piano Polish. —Take equal proportions of turpentine, linseed 

iil and vinegar. Mix; rub in well with a piece of flannel cloth. Then polish with a 
piece of chamois skin. This treatment will entirely remove the dingy appearance 
that age gives to fine woods. 


380 



GEMS OF POETRY 


There is a tide in the affairs of men 

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune; 

Omitted, all the voyage of their life 

Is bound in shallows and in miseries.— Shakespeare. 

Therefore, since brevity is the soul of wit. 

And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes— 

I will be brief. — Shakespeare. 

The quality of mercy is not strain’d; 

It droppeth, as the gentle rain from heaven, 

Upon the place beneath.— Shakespeare. 

What are monuments of bravery 
Where no public virtues bloom ? 

What avail, in lands of slavery, 

Trophied temples, arch and tomb?— Campbell. 

Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids; Not to him who rashly dares. 

Her monuments shall last when Egypt’s But to him who nobly bears, 

fall.— Young. Is the victor’s garland sure.— Whittier. 

A trinity there seems of principles. 

Which represent and rule created life— 

The love of self, our fellows, and our God.— Bailey. 

Hark, his hands the lyre explore! 

Bright-eyed Fancy, hovering o’er. 

Scatters from her pictur’d urn 

Thoughts that breathe and words that burn.— Gray. 

I hold it truth with him who sings 
To one clear harp in divers tones. 

That men may rise on stepping-stones 
Of their dead selves to higher things.— Tennyson. 

Think’st thou existence doth depend on time? 

It doth; but actions are our epochs.— Byron. 

Man but dives in death; 

Dives from the sun in fairer day to r : se. 

The grave his subterranean road to bliss.— Young. 

There is no death! What seems so is transition ; 

This life of mortal breath 
Is but a suburb of the life Elysian, 

Whose portal we call death.— Longfellow. 

Know, then, thyself; presume not God to scan; 

The proper study of mankind is man.— Pope. 

Lowliness is young ambition’s ladder. 

Whereto the climber upward turns his face; 

But when he once attains the utmost round. 

He then unto the ladder turns his back. 

Looks in the clouds, scorning the base degrees 
By which he did ascend.— Shakespeare. 

Condition, circumstance, is not the thing; 

Bliss is the same in subject or in king.— Pope. 

381 



GEMS OF POETRY. 


Men who their duties know, Oh, fear not in a world like this. 

But know their rights, and, knowing, And thou shalt know ere long. 

Dare maintain.— Jones. Know how sublime a thing it is 

To suffer and be strong.— Longfellow. 

The Arve and Arveiron at thy base 

Rave ceaselessly; but thou, most awful Form 1 

Risestfrom forth thy silent sea of pines. 

How silently! Around thee and above 
Deep is the air, and dark, substantial black. 

An ebon mass; methinksthou piercest it 
As with a wedge.— Coleridge (On Mt. Blanc). 

Let fate do her worst, there are moments of joy. 

Bright dreams of the past, which she cannot destroy; 

Which come in the nighttime of sorrow and care. 

And bring back the features that joy used to wear.— Moore. 

Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 

To teach the young idea how to shoot. 

To pour the fresh instruction o’er the mind. 

To breathe th’ enliv’ning spirit, and to fix 

The generous purpose in the glowing breast.— Thomson. 

Every inordinate cup 

Is unblessed, and the ingredient is a devil.— Shakespeare, 

And I will trust that He who heeds 

The life that hides in mead and wold. 

Who hangs yon alder’s crimson beads. 

And stains these mosses green and gold. 

Will still, as HE hath done, incline 

His gracious care to me and mine.— Whittier. 

Yet I doubt not through the ages 
One increasing purpose runs. 

And the thoughts of men are widened 

With the process of the suns.— Tennyson, 

Oh, that men should put an enemy in 

Their mouths to steal away their brains !— Shakespeare. 

’Tis strange, but true, for truth is always strange. 

Stranger than fiction.— Byron. 

Still to ourselves in every place consigned. 

Our own felicity we make or find.— Goldsmith. 

Shall man alone, for whom all else revives. 

No resurrection know?— Young. 

To gild refined gold, to paint the lily. 

To throw a perfume on the violet, 

To smooth the ice or add another hue 
Unto the rainbow, or with taper light 
To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish. 

Is wasteful and ridiculous excess.— Shakespeare. 

The purest treasure mortal times afford 
Is spotless reputation; that away, 

Men are but gilded loam or painted clay.— Shakespeare. 

382 


GEMS OF POETRT. 

Our little lives are kept in equipoise 
By opposite attractions and desires; 

The struggle of the instinct that enjoys. 

And the more noble instinct that aspires.— Longfellow, 

Oh! many a shaft at random sent 
Finds mark the archer little meant, 

And many a word at random spoken 

May soothe or wound a heart that’s broken.— Scott. 

A weapon that comes down as still 
As snowflakes fall upon the sod, 

But executes a freeman’s will 

As lightning does the will of God; 

And from its force nor doors nor locks 
Can shield you; 'tis the ballot-box.— Pierpont. 

Happy the man who sees a God employed 
In all the good and ill that checker life !— Cowper. 

'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours. 

And ask them what report they bore to heaven.— Young. 

Kind hearts are more than coronets, 

And simple faith than Norman blood.— Tennyson. 

'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. 

And clothes the mountain in its azure hue.— Campbell. 

Good name, in man and woman, dear my lord, 

Is the immediate jewel of their souls.— Shakespeare, 

Who, then, to frail mortality shall trust. 

But limns the water, or but writes in dust .—Lord Bacon. 

My mind to me a kingdom is ; 

Such present joys therein I find 
That it excels all other bliss 

That earth affords or grows by kind ; 

Though much I want which most would have. 

Yet still my mind forbids to crave.— Dyer. 

But words are things, and a small drop of Ink, 

Falling, like dew, upon a thought, produces 

That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think. 

—Byron. 


His golden locks hath Time to silver turned, 

O time too swift! O swiftness never ceasing 1 
His youth ’gainst time and age hath ever spurned. 

But spurned in vain; youth waneth by increasing. 

Beauty, strength, youth, are flowers but fading seen, 

Duty, faith, love, are roots, and ever green .—Lord Bacon. 

Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 

When wealth accumulates and men decay; 

Princes and lords may flourish and may fade, 

A breath can make them as a breath has made. 

But an honest peasantry, a country’s pride. 

When once destroyed, can never be supplied.— Goldsmith. 

383 


GEMS OF POETRT. 


An honest man’s the noblest work of God.— Pope. 

’Tis heaven alone that is given away; 

’Tisonly God may be haa for the asking.— LowelL 

There is no death! An angel form 

Walks o’er the earth with silent tread; 

He bears our best lov’d things away, 

And then we call them "dead.”— Harvey. 

First, then, a woman will or won’t, depend on't: 

If she will do’t, she will; and there’s an end on 't. 

But if she won’t, since safe and sound youi trust is. 
Fear is affront, and jealousy injustice.— Hill. 

What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted ? 

Thrice is he arm’d that hath his quarrel just; 

And he but naked, though lock’d up in steel, 

Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.— Shakespeare. 

So dear to heaven is saintly chastity 
That, when a soul is found sincerely so, 

A thousand liveried angels lackey her. 

Driving far off each thing of sin and guilt.— Milton. 

Who has not felt how sadly sweet 

The dream o, home, the dream of home, 

Steals o’er the heart, too soon to fleet. 

When far o’er sea or land we roam ?— Moore. 

No peace nor ease the heart can know 
Which, like the needle true, 

Turns at the touch of joy or woe, 

But, turning, trembles too.— Mrs. Greville. 

Truth crushed to earth shall rise again; 

The eternal years of God are hers; 

But Error, wounded, writhes with pain, 

And dies among his worshipers.— Byron. 

Rest here, distrest by poverty no more ; 

Here find that calm thou gav’st so oft before; 

Sleep, undisturb’d, within this peaceful shrine, 

’Till angels wake thee with a note like thine.— Johnson, 

Care to our coffin adds a nail, no doubt, 

And every grin so merry draws one out.— Wolcot. 

Shall I, wasting in despair. 

Die because a woman's fair? 

Or make pale my cheeks with care 
,’Cause another’s rosy are? 

Be she fairer than the day, 

Or the flow’ry meads in May, 

If she be not so to me, 

What care I how fair she be?— Wither. 

The world’s a bubble, and the life of man. 

Less than a span.— Bacon. 

Great wit is sure to madness close allied. 

And thin partitions do their bounds divide. —Dry den. 

384 


GEMS OF POETRT. 


What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties! in 
form and moving, how express and admirable ! inaction, how like an angel! in ap¬ 
prehension, how like a god !— Shakespeare. 

She walks in beauty, like the night 
Of cloudless climes and starry skies; 

And all that’s best of dark and bright 
Meet in her aspect and her eyes ; 

Thus mellow’d to that tender light 

Which Heaven to gaudy day denies.— Byron. 

"fthou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small.— Old Testament. 

In Faith and Hope the world will disagree. 

But all mankind’s concern is Charity.— Pope. 

Sweet are the uses of adversity, 

Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, 

Wears yet a precious jewel in his head ; 

And thus our life, exempt from public haunt. 

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks. 

Sermons in stones, and good in everything.— Shakespeare. 

Should auld acquaintance be forgot. 

And never brought to min’ ? 

Should auld acquaintance be forgot. 

And days o’ auld lang syne?— Burns. 

Statesman, yet friend to truth ! Of soul sincere. 

In action faithful and in honor clear ; 

Who broke no promise, serv’d no private end ; 

Whogained no title, and who lost no friend.— Pope. 

O woman, lovely woman ! nature made thee 
To temper man ; we had been brutes without you. 

Angels are painted fair, to look like you ; 

There’s in you all that we believe in heaven : 

Amazing brightness, purity and truth. 

Eternal joy and everlasting love.— Otway. 


MISQUOTATIONS. 

It is a peculiar faculty of human memory to misquote proverbs 

and poetry, and almost invariably to place the credit where it does not belong. 

Nine men out of ten think that “The Lord tempers the wind to the shorn lamb” is 
from the Bible, whereas Lawrence Sterne is the author. “Pouring oil upon the 
troubled waters” is also ascribed to the sacred volume, whereas it is not there ; in 
fact, no one knows its origin. 

Again, we hear people say : “The proof of the pudding is in chewing the string.” 
This is arrant nonsense, as the proverb says : 

“The proof of the pudding is in the eating thereof, and not in chewing the string.” 

Nothing is more common than to hear : 

A man convinced against his will 
Is of the same opinion still. 

This is an impossible condition of the mind, for no one can be convinced of an 
opinion and at the same time hold an opposite one. What Butler wrote was emi¬ 
nently sensible: 

He that complies against his will 
Is of his own opinion still. 

385 



POSTAL INFORMATION. 


A famous passage of Scripture is often misquoted thus: “He that is without sin 
among you, let him cast the first stone.” It should be: “Let him first cast a stone.* 

Sometimes we are told: “Behold how great a fire a little matter kindleth,” 
whereas St. James said: “Behold how great a matter a little fire kindleth,” which 
is quite a different thing. 

We also hear that a “miss is as good as a mile,” which is not as sensible or forcible 
as the true proverb; “A miss of an inch is as good as a mile.” 

“Look before you leap” should be : “And look before you ere you leap.” 

Pope is generally credited with having written : 

Immodest words admit of no defense. 

For want of decency is want of sense, 

though it would puzzle any one to find the verses in his writings. They were writ' 
ten by the Earl of Roscommon, who died before Pope was born. 

Franklin said : “Honesty is the best of policy,” but the maxim is of Spanish ori' 
gin, and may be found in “Don Quixote.” 


POSTAL INFORMATION. 

Local, or Drop Letters, two cents for each ounce at all 
letter carrier offices, and at other offices i cent. 

Letters to any part of the United States or the Dominion oi 

Canada, 2 cents for each ounce or fraction thereof. 

Letters to Great Britain or Ireland, or the Continent of 

Europe, 5 cents for each half ounce. 

Valuable Letters may be registered by paying a charge 

of 10 cents. 

Postal Cards costing one cent each can be sent to any part 
of the United States or Canada. They may be sent to Newfoundland, Great Brit¬ 
ain and Ireland by adding a 1 cent stamp. 

Printed Matter: i. Printed Books, Periodicals, Transcient 

Newspapers and other matter wholly in print, in unsealed envelopes, 1 cent for 
each two ounces or fraction thereof. 

2 . Printed circulars may bear the date, address and signature 

at this rate. 

3 . Reproductions by electric pen, Hekograph, and similar pro¬ 

cesses, same as Printed Matter. 

Articles of Merchandise, Seeds, Cuttings, Roots, 

arMother mailable matter, 1 cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. 

All Packages of mail matter not charged with letter post¬ 
age must be arranged so the same can be conveniently examined by postmas¬ 
ters. If not so arranged, letter postage will be charged. 

Articles of Merchandise may be registered at the rate of 
10 cents a package, subject to proper examination before registration. The name 
and the address of sender must be indorsed in writing, or in print, on each package 
offered for registration. 

Any Package may have the name and address of the sender, 
with the word “from” prefixed on the wrapper, and the number and names of the 
articles may be added in brief form. 

Postal Note, payable to bearer at any money order office 

designed by the purchaser of the note, must be for an amount under five dollars, 
and will cost three cents. 

Money Orders : The fee for a money order not exceeding 

$10 is 8 cents; $10 to $15, 10 cents; $15 to $30, 15 cents; $30 to $ 40, 20 cents; $40 to 
$50, 25 cents; $50 to $60, 30 cents; $60 to $ 70, 35 cents; $70 to $80 dollars, 40 cents; 
$80 to $100, 45 cents. 


386 




THE SINGLE TAX. 


This was first formulated by Mr. Henry George in 1879, and has grown 
steadily in favor. Single-tax men assert as a fundamental principle that 
all men are equally entitled to the use of the earth; therefore, no one should be 
allowed to hold valuable land without paying to the community the value 
of the privilege. They hold that this is the only rightful source of publio 
revenue, and they would therefore abolish all taxation—local, State and 
national—except a tax upon the rental value of land exclusive of its im¬ 
provements, the revenue thus raised to be divided among local, State and 
general governments, as the revenue from certain direct taxes is now 
divided between local and State governments. 

The single tax would not fall on all land, but only on valuable land, and 
on that in proportion to its value. It would thus be a tax, not on use or im¬ 
provements, but on ownership of land, taking what w'ould otherwise go to 
the landlord as owner. 

In accordance with the principle that all men are equally entitled to the 
use of the earth, they would solve the transportation problem by public 
ownership and control of all highways, including the roadbeds of railroads, 
leaving their use equally free to all. 

The single-tax system would, they claim, dispense with a horde of tax- 
gatherers, simplify government, and greatly reduce its cost; give us with all 
the world that absolute free trade which now exists between the States of 
the Union; abolish all taxes on private issues of money; take the weight of 
taxation from agricultural districts, where land has little or no value apart 
from improvements, and put it upon valuable land, such as city lots and 
mineral deposits. It would call upon men to contribute for public expenses 
in proportion to the natural opportunities they monopolize, and make it 
unprofitable for speculators to hold land unused or only partly used, thus 
opening to labor unlimited fields of employment, solving the labor prob¬ 
lem and abolishing involuntary poverty. 


VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS. 

Proclaimed by law, January I, 1891 . 


Country. 

Monetary Unit. 

Standard. 

Value in 

U. S. Money. 

Argentine Republic... 
Austria. 

Peso. 

Florin. 

Gold and silver.. 
Silver.. .. 

$ *9 & fa 
.38* 

• l 9ui 

•77 tV 

• 54 A 

1.00 

•91 TU 

I .27 

•9 2 A 

. 26 -,% 

• 77T.T 
•°4rV 

• 19 ^ 

4 . 86 ^ 

Belgium. 

'Rolivia .. 

F ranc. 

Boliviano.. . 
M ilreis. 

Gold and silver.. 
Silver. 

Brazil. 

Gold. 

Canada . 

Dollar. 

Gold. 

Chili . 

Peso. 

Gold and silver.. 
Silver. 

China . 

Tael. 

Cuba , ,. 

Peso. 

Gold and silver.. 
Gold. 

Denmark . 

Crow 1 . 

Ecuador. 

Peso. 

.Silver. 

F.pvnt . 

Piaster. 

Gold. 

France. 

Great Britain. 

Franc. 

Pound St’g 

Gold and silver.. 
Gold. 


387 













































SOME FACTS WORTH KNOWING. 


Country. 

Monetary Unit. 

Standard. 

Value in 

U. S. Money. 

Greece. 

Drachma.... 

Gold and silver.. 

• 19 A 

German Empire 

Mark. 

Gold. 

.23 A 

Hayti. 

Gourde. 

Gold and silver. . 

.06 A 

India . 

Rupee. 

Silver... 

.36 A 

Italy. 

Lira. 

Gold and silver. . 

• 1 9 xo 

Japan . 

Yen . 

Silver. 

-85 A 

Liberia. 

Dollar .... 

Gold . 

I.OO 

Mexico . 

Dollar. 

Silver. 

.83 A 

Netherlands. 

Florin. 

Gold and silver. . 

.40 A 

N orwav. 

Crown. 

Gold. 

.26 a 

Peru .... 


Silver. 

.77 A 

Portugal . 

Milreis. 

Gold. 

1.08 

Russia . 

Rouble. 

Silver. 

.61A 

Sandwich Islands . . . 

Dollar 

Gold. 

1.00 

Spain. 

Peseta. 

Gold and silver.. 

• 19A 

Sweden. 

Crown. 

Gold. 

. 26 A 

Switzerland. 

F ranc. 

Gold and silver. . 

• I9A 

Tripoli. 

Mahbub... , 

Silver. 

•69 A 

Turkev. 

Piaster. 

Gold. 

. 04A 

U. S. of Colombia. 

Peso. 

Silver. 

. 7 9 iA 

Venezuela. 

Bolivar .... 

Gold and silver.. 

• 15 A 


SOME FACTS WORTH KNOWING. 

The Capital of the United States has been located at differ¬ 
ent times at the following places: At Philadelphia from Sept. 5, 1774, 
until Dec., 1776; at Baltimore from Dec. 20, 1776, to March, 1777; 
at Philadelphia from March 4, 1777, to Sept., 1777 ; at Lancaster, Pa., 
from Sept. 27, 1777, to Sept. 30, 1777; at York, Pa., from Sept. 30, 
1777, to July, 1778; at Philadelphia from July 2, 1778, to June 30, 
1783; at Princeton, N. J., June 30, 1783, to Nov. 20, 1783; Annap¬ 
olis, Md., Nov. 26, 1783, to Nov. 30,1784; Trenton from Nov., 
1784, to Jan., 1785 ; New York from Jan. 11, 1785, to 1790; then the 
seat of government was removed to Philadelphia where it remained 
until 1800, since which time it has been in Washington. 

Tomato in Bright’s Disease. When Thomas Jefferson brought 
the tomato from France to America, thinking that if it could be in¬ 
duced to grow bountifully it might make good feed for hogs, he little 
dreamed of the benefit he was conferring upon posterity. A constant 

388 































































SOME FACTS WORTH KNOWING. 


« 

diet of raw tomatoes and skim-milk is said to be a certain cure for 
Bright’s disease. Gen. Schenck, who, when Minister to England, 
became a victim to that complaint, was restored to health by two 
years of this regimen. With many persons the tomato has much the 
same effect upon the liver as a small blue pill, and whether it is as a 
people we are less bilious than in former years, or that the doctors of 
the new school practice less severe remedies than did those of the past, 
it is certain that mercury is prescribed with less frequency than of old. 

Asthma. I have been a sufferer from asthma for twenty-five 
years, and for more than a dozen years have used the following recipe 
with great benefit. It is not a cure, but in my case gives almost 
instant relief. Take equal parts of powdered stramonium leaves and 
powdered belladonna leaves and mix thoroughly; to each ten ounces 
of the mixture add one ounce of powdered saltpeter (nitrate of pot¬ 
ash); mix all thoroughly. I always keep some of this in a small tin 
box. When I wish to use it I pour a little of the powder into the 
cover of the box, light it with a match, cover the whole with a little 
paper cone with the point cut off. I place the point of the cone in 
my mouth, and breathe the smoke into my lungs with the air. The 
first trial is very hard, it almost strangles, but if persevered in will 
give great relief. This is much better than stramonium alone. The 
saltpeter makes it burn freely, and also helps to give relief. 

When my home was in northern Indiana, I used to buy the leaves in 
Chicago already powdered. Now I send to New York. I find it 
cheaper to do this than to gather and dry the leaves. It is also almost 
impossible to dry and pulverize the leaves at home. By using a 
paper cone and breathing through it, little or no smoke is wasted, and 
the box and paper can be carried m the pocket and used as occasion 
requires. 

For Swollen Feet. Policemen, mail carriers, and others whose 
occupation keeps them on their feet a great deal, often are troubled 
with chafed, sore and blistered feet, especially in extremely hot 
weather, no matter how comfortably their shoes may fit. A powder 
is used ill the German army for sifting into the shoes and stockings of 
the foot soldiers, called “ Fusstreupulver,” and consists of 3 parts sali¬ 
cylic acid, 10 parts starch and 87 parts pulverized soapstone. 

Rules for Fat People and for Lean. To increase the weight: 
Eat to the extent of satisfying a natural appetite, of fat meats, butter, 
cream, milk, cocoa, chocolate, bread, potatoes, peas, parsnips, carrots, 
beets, farinaceous foods, as Indian corn, rice, tapioca, sago, corn starch, 
pastry, custards, oatmeal, sugar, sweet wines, and ale. Avoid acids. 
Exercise as little as possible, and sleep all you can. 

To reduce the weight: Eat, to the extent of satisfying a natural 
appetite, of lean meat, poultry, game, eggs, milk moderately, green 
vegetables, turnips, succulent fruits, tea or coffee. Drink lime juice, 
lemonade, and acid drink^. Avoid fat, butter, cream, sugar, pastry, 

389 


*9 OME FA C TS IVOR Til IINO WING. 

rice, sago, tapioca, corn starch, potatoes, carrots, beets, parsnips, and 
sweet wines. 

Wonders of the Human Body. The skin contains more 
than two million openings, which are the outlets of an equal num¬ 
ber of sweat-glands. The human skeleton consists of more than 
two hundred distinct bones. An amount of blood equal to the whole 
quantity in the body passes through the heart once every minute. 
The full capacity of the lungs is about three hundred and twenty 
cubic inches. About two-thirds of a pint of air is inhaled and exhaled 
at each breath in ordinary respiration. The stomach daily produces 
nine pounds of gastric juice for digestion of food; its capacity is about 
five pints. There are more than five hundred separate muscles in the 
body, with an equal number of nerves and blood-vessels. The weight 
of the heart is from eight to twelve ounces. It beats one hundred 
thousand times in twenty-four hours. Each perspiratory duct is one- 
fourth of an inch in length, of the whole about nine miles. The 
average man takes five and one-half pounds of food and drink each 
day, which amounts to one ton of solid and liquid nourishment annu¬ 
ally. A man breathes eighteen times a minute, and three thousand 
cubic feet, or about three hundred and seventy-five hogsheads of air 
every hour of his existence. 

Changes in the Language. Few, scholars even, are aware of the 
great changes through which the English language has passed in suc¬ 
cessive centuries. Following are specimens of the Lord’s Prayer, as 
used at various periods in English history: 

A. D. 1158.—Fader ur heune, haleweide beith thi neune, cumin thi 
kuneriche, thy wille beoth idon in heune and in erthe. The euryeu 
dawe briend, gif ous thilk dawe. And vorzif uer detters as vi yors- 
ifen ure dettoures. And lene us nought into temtation, bot delyvor 
eus of evel. Amen. 

A. D. 1300.—Fader ure in heavene. Halewyn be thi name, thi 
kingdom come, thy wille be done as in heavene and earthe — Oua urche 
days bred give us to daye. And forgive oure dettes as we forgive oure 
dettoures. And lead us nor in temptation, bote delyveor us of yvil. 
Amen. 

A. D. 1370.—Oure fadir that art in heunes hallowid be thi name 
thi kingdom come to, be thi wille done in erthe as in heune,geve to, 
us this day oure breed oure other substance forgene to us our dettis 
as we forgauen to oure dettouris, lede us not into temptation; but 
delyeur us yvel. Amen. 

A. D. 1524.—O oure father which arte in heven, hallowed be thy 
name. Let thy kingdom come. Thy wyoll be fulfilled as well in 
earth as it is in heven. Give us this daye oure dayly brede. And 
forgive us our trespaces even as we forgive our trespacers. And lead 
us not into temptation, but delyver us from veil. Fyr thyne is the 
kingdome and the power and the glorye for ever. Amen. 

390 


SOME FACTS WORTH KNOWING. 

A. D. 1561.—Our father which art in heauen, sanctified be thy 
name. Let thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, as in heauen, in 
earth also. Give us today our superstantial bread. And forgive us 
our dettes as we forgive our detters. And lead us not into temptation. 
But delivere us from evil. Amen. 

A. D. 1711.—Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy 
name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in 
heauen. Give us this day our dayley bread. And forgive us our 
debts as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, 
but deliver us from evil. For thyne is the kingdome, and the power, 
and the glory forever. Amen. 

How to Put on Gloves. A great deal depends on the first put- 
ing on of gloves. Have the hands perfectly clean, dry and cool, and 
never put on new gloves while the hands are warm or damp. When 
a person is troubled with moist hands, it is well to powder them before 
trying on the gloves ; but in most cases, if the hands are cool and 
dry, this is not needed. First, work on the fingers, keeping the thumb 
outside of the glove, and the wrist of the glove turned back. When 
the fingers are in smoothly, put in the thumb, and work the glove on 
very carefully; then placing the elbow on the knee, work on the 
hand. When this is done, smooth down the wrist, and button the 
second button first, then the third, and so on to the end. Then 
smooth down the whole glove and fasten the first button. Fastening 
the first button last, when putting on a glove for the first time, 
makes a great deal of difference in the fit, although it may seem but a 
very little thing. It does not strain the part of the glove that is 
easiest to strain at first, and prevents the enlarging of the button-hole, 
either of which is sure to take place if you begin at the first button to 
fasten the glove. 

When removing your gloves, never begin at the.tips of the fingers 
to pull them off, but turn back the wrist and pull off carefully, which 
will, of course, necessitate their being wrong side out. Turn them 
right side out, turn the thumbs in, smooth them lengthwise in as near 
as possible the shape they would be if on the hands, and place them 
away with a strip of white Canton flannel between if the gloves are 
light, but if dark-colored the flannel may be omitted. Never roll 
gloves into each other in a wad, for they will never look so well after. 
There is always some moisture in them from the hands ; consequently, 
when rolled up, this moisture has no chance of drying, and must work 
into the gloves, making them hard and stiff, and of very little use 
after, as far as looks or fit is concerned. 

When Quinine Will Break Up a Cold. It is surprising, says a 
family physician, how certainly a cold may be broken up by a timely 
dose of quinine. When first symptoms make their appearance, when 
a little languor, slight hoarseness and ominous tightening of the nasal 
membranes follow exposure to draughts or sudden chill by wet, five 

391 


SOME FA CTS JVOR TH KNO WING. 


grains of this useful alkaloid are sufficient in many cases to end the 
trouble. But it must be done promptly. If the golden moment 
passes, nothing suffices to stop the weary sneezing, handkerchief-using, 
red nose and woe-begone-looking periods that certainly follow. 

A Mistaken Idea. The old adage, “ Feed a cold and starve a 
fever,” is characterized by the Journal of Health as very silly advice. 
If anything, the reverse would be nearer right. When a person has a 
severe cold it is best for him to eat very lightly, especially during the 
first few days of the attack. 

Bathing. There has been a great deal written about bathing. 
The surface of the skin is punctured with millions of little holes 
called pores. The duty of these pores is to carry the waste matter 
off. For instance, perspiration. Now, if these pores are stopped 
up they are of no use, and the body has to find some other way to get 
rid of its impurities. Then the liver has more than it can do. Then we 
take a liver pill when we ought to clean out the pores instead. The 
housewife is very particular to keep her sieves in good order; after 
she has strained a substance through them they are washed out care¬ 
fully with water, because water is the best thing known. That is the 
reason water is used to bathe in. But the skin is a little different from 
a sieve, because it is willing to help along the process itself. All it 
needs is a little encouragement and it will accomplish wonders. What 
the skin wants is rubbing. If you should quietly sit down in a tub 
of water and as quietly get up and dry off without rubbing, your skin 
wouldn’t be much benefited. 

The water would make it a little soft, especially if it was warm. 
But rubbing is the great thing. Stand where the sunlight strikes a 
part of your body, then take a dry brush and rub it, and you will 
notice that countless little flakes of cuticle fly off. Every time one 
of these flakes is removed from the skin your body breathes a sigh of 
relief. An eminent German authority contends that too much bath¬ 
ing is a bad thing. There is much truth in this. Soap and water are 
good things to soften up the skin, but rubbing is what the skin wants. 
Every morning or every evening, or when it is most convenient, wash 
the body all over with water and a little ammonia, or anything which 
tends to make the water soft; then rub dry with a towel, and after 
that go over the body from top to toe with a dry brush. Try this for 
two or three weeks, and your skin will be like velvet. 

Tea and Coffee. Tea is a nerve stimulant, pure and simple, 
acting like alcohol in this respect, without any value that the latter may 
possess as a retarder of waste. It has a special influence upon those 
nerve centers that supply will power, exalting their sensibility beyond 
normal activity, and may even produce hysterical symptoms, if carried 
far enough. Its active principle, theine, is an exceedingly powerful 
drug, chiefly employed by nerve specialists as a pain destroyer, pos¬ 
sessing the singular quality of working toward the surface. That is to 

392 . 


A OME FA C TS IVOR TH KNO WING . 


say, when a dose is administered hypodermically for sciatica, for ex¬ 
ample, the narcotic influence proceeds outward from the point of in¬ 
jection, instead of inward toward the centers, as does that of morphia, 
atropia, etc. Tea is totally devoid of nutritive value, and the habit 
of drinking it to excess, which so many American women indulge in, 
particularly in the country, is to be deplored as a cause of our Ameri¬ 
can nervousness. 

Coffee, on the contrary, is a nerve food. Like other concentrated 
foods of its class, it operates as astimulant, also but, upon a different set 
of nerves from tea. Taken strong in the morning, it often produces diz¬ 
ziness and that peculiar visual sympton of overstimulus which is called 
muscce volitantes —dancing flies. But this is an improper way to take 
it, and rightly used it is perhaps the most valuable liquid addition to 
the morning meal. Its active principle, caffeine, differs in all physio¬ 
logical respects from theine, while it is chemically very closely allied, 
and its limited consumption makes it impotent for harm. 

The Shrinkage of Flannel. To keep flannels as much as possi¬ 
ble from shrinking and felting, the following is to be recommended: 
Dissolve one ounce of potash in a bucket of water, and leave the 
fabric in it for twelve hours. Next warm the water, with the fabric 
in it, and wash without rubbing, also draw through repeatedly. Next 
immerse the flannel in another liquid containing one spoonful of wheat 
flour to one bucket of water, and wash in a similar manner. 

Ancient Cities. Nineveh was 15 miles long, 8 wide and 40 
miles round, with a wall 100 feet high, and thick enough for 3 chariots 
abreast. Babylon was 50 miles within the walls, which were 87 feet 
thick and 350 high, with 100 brazen gates. The Temple of Diana, 
at Ephesus, was 420 feet to the support of the roof. It was 100 years 
in building. The largest of the pyramids is 461 feet high, and 653 on 
the sides; its base covers 11 acres. The stones are about 30 feet in 
length, and the layers are 380. It employed 330,000 men in building. 
The labyrinth, in Egypt, contains 300 chambers and250 halls. Thebes, 
in Egypt, presents ruins 27 miles round. Athens was 25 miles round, 
and contained 350,000 citizens and 400,000 slaves. The Temple of 
Delphos was so rich in donations that it was plundered of $500,000, 
and Nero carried away 200 statues. The walls of Rome were 13 miles 
round. 

The Process of Embalming. The process of embalming is as 
follows, and is called the “ Brunelli process ” : The circulatory sys¬ 
tem is cleansed by washing with cold water till it issues quite clear 
from the body. This may occupy from two to five hours. Alcohol 
is injected, so as to abstract as much water as possible. This occu¬ 
pies about a quarter of an hour. Ether is then injected to abstract 
the fatty matter. This occupies from two to ten hours. A strong 
solution of tannin is then injected. This occupies for imbibition from 
two to ten hours. The body is then dried in a current of warm air 

393 


SOME FACTS WORTH KNOWING. 


passed over heated chloride of calcium. This may occupy two to five 
hours. The body is then perfectly preserved, and resists decay. The 
Italians exhibit specimens which are as hard as stone, retain the shape 
perfectly, and are equal to the best wax models. It will be observed 
in this process that those substances most prone to decay are removed, 
and the remaining portions are converted by the tannin into a sub¬ 
stance resembling leather. 

To Straighten Round Shoulders. A stooping figure and a 

halting gait, accompanied by the unavoidable weakness of lungs inci¬ 
dental to a narrow chest, may be entirely cured by a very simple and 
easily-performed exercise of raising one’s self upon the toes lei¬ 
surely in a perpendicular position several times daily. To take this 
exercise properly one must take a perfectly upright position, with the 
heels together and the toes at an angle of forty-five degrees. Then 
drop the arms lifelessly by the sides, animating and raising the chest 
to its full capacity muscularity, the chin well drawn in, and the crown 
of the head feeling as if attached to a string suspended from the ceiling 
above. Slowly rise upon the balls of both feet to the greatest possible 
height, thereby exercising all the muscles of the legs and body; come 
again into standing position without swaying the body backward out 
of the perfect line. Repeat this same exercise, first on one foot, then 
on the other. It is wonderful what a straightening-out power this 
exercise has upon round shoulders and crooked backs, and one will be 
surprised to note how soon the lungs begin to show the effect of such 
expansive development. 

Care of the Eyes. In consequence of the increase of affections 
of the eye, a specialist has recently formulated the following rules to 
be observed in the care of the eyes for school work. A comfortable 
temperature, dry and warm feet, good ventilation; clothing at the 
neck and on other parts of the body loose; posture erect, and never 
read lying down or stooping. Little study before breakfast or directly 
after a heavy meal; none at all at twilight or late at night; use great 
caution about studying after recovery from fevers; have light abun¬ 
dant, but not dazzling, not allowing the sun to shine on desks or on 
objects in front of the scholars, and letting the light come from the 
left hand or left and rear; hold book at right angles to the line of 
sight or nearly so; give eyes frequent rest by looking up. The dis¬ 
tance of the book from the eye should be about fifteen inches. The 
usual indication of strain is redness of the rim of the eyelid, betoken¬ 
ing a congested state of the inner surface, which may be accompanied 
with some pain. When the eye tires easily rest is not the proper 
remedy, but the use of glasses of sufficient power to aid in accommo¬ 
dating the eye to vision. 

How and When to Drink Water. According to Doctor Leuf, 
when water is taken into the full or partly full stomach, it does not 
mingle with the food, as we are taught, but passes along quickly be- 

394 


SOME FACTS WORTH KNOWING. 


tween the food and lesser curvative toward the pylorus, through which 
it passes into the intestines. The secretion of mucus by the lining 
membrane is constant, and during the night a considerable amount 
accumulates in the stomach; some of its liquid portion is absorbed, 
and that which remains is thick and tenacious. If food is taken into 
the stomach when in this condition, it becomes coated with this 
mucus, and the secretion of the gastric juice and its action are de¬ 
layed. These facts show the value of a goblet of water before break¬ 
fast. This washes out the tenacious mucus, and stimulates the gastric 
glands to secretion. In old and feeble persons water should not be 
taken cold, but it may be with great advantage taken warm or hot. 
This removal of the accumulated mucus from the stomach is probably 
one of the reasons why taking soup at the beginning of a meal has 
been found so beneficial. 

What Causes Coughs. Cold and coughs are prevalent through¬ 
out the country, but throat affections are by far more common among 
business men. Every unfortunate one mutters something about the 
abominable weather and curses the piercing wind. Much of the 
trouble, however, is caused by overheated rooms, and a little more 
attention to proper ventilation would remove the cause of suffering. 
Doctor J. Ewing Mears, who is thus afflicted, said to an inquirer: 
“ The huskiness and loss of power of articulation so common among 
us are largely due to the use of steam for heating. The steam cannot 
be properly regulated, and the temperature becomes too high. A 
person living in this atmosphere has all the cells of the lungs open, 
and when he passes into the open air he is unduly exposed. The 
affliction is quite common among the men who occupy offices in the 
new buildings which are fitted up with all modern improvements. The 
substitution of electric light for gas has wrought a change to which 
people have not yet adapted themselves. The heat arising from a 
number of gas jets will quickly raise the temperature of a room, and 
unconsciously people relied upon that means of heating to some ex¬ 
tent. Very little warmth, however, is produced by the electric light, 
and when a man reads by an incandescent light he at times finds him¬ 
self becoming chilly, and wonders why it is. Too hot during the da J 
and too cold at night are conditions which should be avoided.” 

Facts not Generally Known. 

Spinach is a Persian plant. 

Horse-radish is a native of England. 

Melons were found originally in Asia. 

Filberts originally came from Greece. 

Quinces originally came from Corinth. 

The turnip originally came from Rome. 

The peach originally came from Persia. 

Sage is a native of the South of Europe. 

Sweet marjoram is a native of Portugal. 

395 • 


RECENT PROGRESS OF INVENTION. 

¥ 


HERE is no other bureau of the Federal Government 



which exhibits so much brain work as the Patent 


Office. The number of models of machines and 
other devices and products required in the various indus¬ 
trial arts, as exhibited in its capacious halls, is simply 
prodigious. It is the best index of the mental activity of 
the American people, who excel all others in inventive 


genius. 


In 1895 39,145 applications for patents were received, of 
which 21,998 were granted, and in the same year 12,345 
patents expired and 3,428 were forfeited for non-payment 
of fees. Patents were issued to citizens of every State in 
the Union, and in proportion to population Yankee genius 
prevailed, more patents having been issued to citizens of 
Connecticut than to those of any other State—one to every 
927 inhabitants. The total number of patents issued by 
the United States up to December 31, 1895, was 562,458, 
and the total number issued by all the rest of the world 
was 981,961. 

During the last quarter of a century twenty-five inven¬ 
tors have secured no fewer than 4,894 patents, and among 
these Thomas A. Edison takes the lead with 712 patents, 
and next comes Elihu Thomson with 394, then Francis H. 
Richards with 343, the lowest among these twenty-five 
being George H. Reynolds with 101. 


Agricultural Devices. 


In the art of agriculture no fewer than 10,342 patents 
have been granted for plows alone, and of this number 
191 are for steam plows and one for an electric plow. A 
very ingenious instrument was patented in 1895 for plant¬ 
ing sugar cane. A plow digs the trench, a knife cuts the 
cane in proper lengths, which drop into the trench, and 
scraping blades in the rear of the machine cover them. 
In the case of harvesters and threshers, single or com¬ 
bined, about 10,400 patents have been issued since the 
patent system was established. Many of these are very 
complicated, and a description of them without an exten¬ 
sive set of drawings or models would hardly be intelli¬ 
gible. Some are drawn by horses; others by a portable 
engine mounted on the same truck with the harvester, 
propelling the machine while furnishing power to drive 
the mechanism at the same time. Among other devices 
in this department is a new incubator in which the tern- 


396 


RECENT PROGRESS OF INVENTION. 

perature is regulated by a thermostat and an electric 
circuit. 

Flour milling has been wholly transformed lately by the 
substitution of the roller, instead of the burr millstone. 
A dust collector for clearing the air of the flour-dust has 
been invented since the disastrous flour-dust explosions at 
Minneapolis, in 1878. Cotton-seed oil—a very important 
product—is now extracted by the aid of volatile solvents, 
which are afterwards removed by distillation. 

Improvements by Aid of Chemicals 

include the utilizing of air for making ammonia, the 
peroxides of hydrogen, barium, sodium, and calcium, the 
preparation of aluminum and ferric salts and smokeless 
powder, the last made by taking highly nitrated collodion 
and dissolving it in a mixture consisting of sixty-six 
parts of sulphuric ether and thirty-four parts of alcohol. 
A pasty mass is thus formed, which is rolled out into 
strips about one-tenth of a millimetre in thickness, and 
then cut and dried. 

Electrolysis. 

The use of electrolysis during the last decade has 
worked an entire revolution in metallurgic operations, 
among which may be mentioned the extraction from their 
ores of copper, zinc, manganese, chromium and aluminum. 
The price of the last, reduced from $32 per pound in 1870 
to 40 cents in 1895, is due to its production by electrical 
methods. All the copper now produced, except that from 
Lake Superior, is refined electrolytically. 

Engineering and Transportation. 

A system of dredging by what are called clamshell 
dredges has been improved by the direct application of 
fluid pressure to close the bucket The wheeled scoop for 
excavating and removing earth has been improved on. 
The bear-trap canal lock is a signal advance on the old 
locks hitherto used. In railway construction nearly one 
thousand patents have been granted, the more important 
relating to the wear-plate to arrest the destruction of the 
wooden tie by the rail, a very valuable improvement, 
and the union of the rail ends by fusing or casting an iron 
jacket about the joint under conditions involving a sur¬ 
face welding of the metal. Railway switches have 
received great attention. The spring rail frog at the 
intersection of crossing rails makes the main track prac- 

397 


RECENT PROGRESS OF INVENTION. 


tically continuous. Improved signaling devices and an 
elaborate pneumatic system of controlling switches and 
signals have been patented, and promise to be of immense 
utility. 

Electric Appliances 

cover electric heating, electric motors, railways, meters, 
switches, and self-winding clocks and electric lighting and 
signaling. The railroad car telegraph is one of the 
recent wonders in this line. An electric circuit on the 
car extends from the metallic roof of the car to the rails 
with transmitting and receiving devices. This has been 
improved by using induction impulses from the train to 
the line wire, so as not to interfere with the ordinary 
Morse signal sent between stations. 

The Horseless Carriage. 

In 1895 a patent was issued for a horseless carriage. 
This was the pioneer invention in this line. It consists in 
the application of the compression gas engine to the 
propulsion of wagons and carriages. A new breech-load¬ 
ing mechanism has been invented. It is operated by a 
single movement of a lever to open or close the breech, 
the exploded shell being expelled by the same mechanism. 
It is the simplest and most efficient instrument of its kind 
yet patented. Projectiles have received no small amount 
of attention. A shell recently patented carries high 
explosives, and does not explode until it has' penetrated 
the armor-plates of ships. Firearms and smokeless 
powder have been improved. A gun patented in 1895 has 
been adopted in our army. It is a magazine gun, some¬ 
what after the Krag-Jorgensen rifle. There is also a new 
smokeless powder, composed of nitrocellulose and nitro¬ 
glycerine, which may be used in rods or in free running 
powder. 

Metallurgic Devices 

have been patented in great numbers. The extraction of 
gold and silver is accomplished by lixiviating or leaching 
them in an aqueous solution of double hyposulphite of 
sodium and copper. The precious metals are thus dis¬ 
solved out, and then precipitated from the clear solution 
by means of sodium or calcium sulphide. Another way of 
cheapening the production of gold and silver is to treat 
the crushed ore with a weak cyanide solution, thus form¬ 
ing a cyanide of gold or silver, which is easily decomposed 


RECENT PROGRESS OF INVENTION 


by the electric current. These methods will prove 
exceedingly valuable where water is scarce. In the case 
of artesian and oil wells, a patent was issued for a process 
of enlarging the hole in the rock below the casing, so 
that it may be sunk to a lower depth when, for any 
reason, this becomes necessary. This is accomplished by 
an expansible cutting device, which can be passed 
through the casing, and, by proper manipulation, can be 
made to enlarge the bore of the well below. Another 
device belonging to this class is intended to recover lost 
drilling tools from oil or gas wells. 

A scientific invention called the solarometer was pat¬ 
ented in 1895. It relates to taking observations of the 
heavenly bodies, and solving mechanically the parts of 
the astronomical spherical triangle used in navigation 
and other similar work, the principal feature and object 
of which are to determine the position or the compass 
error of the ship at sea, independently of the visibility of 
the horizon. If the horizon is not visible, but the sun or a 
known star is visible, the ship’s position can still be 
determined. 

Roentgen’s X-Rays 

Probably the most important and interesting discovery 
of recent years was that of the X-ray by Professor 
Roentgen, which was announced in February, 1896. The 
scientific and lay press has thoroughly familiarized the 
public with the wonderful achievements secured by means 
of this new discovery. Nikola Tesla devoted great atten¬ 
tion to the development and refinement of X-ray appa¬ 
ratus and to the purely scientific consideration of the 
source and nature of the ray. Thomas A. Edison also 
made many experiments, and developed the “ fluoroscope,” 
by means of which the human eye may see through solid 
objects, such as blocks of wood. Edison made exhaustive 
tests of the fluorescence of most of the chemical salts, 
and found that tungstate of calcium possessed the highest 
degree of fluorescence. Professor Elihu Thomson was 
another prominent X-ray experimenter, and developed 
the Thomson focussing tube. There are about ten firms 
now supplying X-ray apparatus in commercial forms to 
hospitals, physicians, and amateur investigators. With 
the most powerful of this apparatus it is possible to 
actually see the beating of the heart of a human being. 

The Telephone. 

The telephone continues to grow in favor by leaps and 

899 


RECENT PROGRESS OF INVENTION. 


bounds as a means for rapid communication. The long¬ 
distance system was greatly extended and added to 
recently, notably in the Western and Southern States. 
The network of long-distance wires is now so comprehen¬ 
sive, and is operated so harmoniously with the local 
systems of all the towns and cities which it connects, that 
the whole of the country east of the Mississippi River is 
now, for all practical purposes, one vast national tele¬ 
phone exchange. Conversations over lines 1,500 miles 
long are of daily occurrence, and are carried on as 
efficiently as those over local lines a mile or so in length. 
During the Electrical Exposition, the American Tele¬ 
phone and Telegraph Company set up a transmitter in 
the Cave of the Winds at Niagara Falls, and transmitted 
the “roar of Niagara ” to a number of telephone receivers 
placed in the exposition hall. The official report states 
that 100,000 persons heard the “roar of Niagara ” during 
the exhibition. 

Electric Lighting. 

An important event in the electric lighting field was 
the granting of patents in 1896 to Nikola Tesla for his 
electrical oscillator. The oscillator is, roughly speaking, 
a machine which combines in one the steam engine and 
dynamo. By this means a greatly increased efficiency 
and a large saving of floor space are obtained. Several 
important improvements in arc lamps designed to burn 
on incandescent lighting circuits have been recently 
made. Arc lamps are now obtainable which will burn 150 
hours without retrimming. The use of an interior globe 
in addition to the outside globe obviates all danger of fire 
from falling sparks. 

Long-Distance Transmission. 

The most interesting event of recent years, as regards 
the long-distance transmission of electric current, was 
celebrated on November 16, 1896. At that time 1,000 
horse-power of electrical energy was sent from the 
Niagara Falls Power Company’s great plant at the Falls 
to Buffalo, N. Y., a distance of twenty-six miles, there to 
be used # in propelling the street cars of the Buffalo Rail¬ 
way Company Since the current was first used to run 
the cars this transmission scheme has been a perfect 
success and the cars have been in continuous operation. 
The transmission line between the two points is carried 
on heavy poles for the whole distance, except about one 


RECENT PROGRESS OF INVENTION. 


mile inside the city limits of Buffalo, where an under¬ 
ground conduit is used. The overhead wires are of bare 
copper laid on immense porcelain insulators attached to 
the cross arms on the poles. When the line is completed 
to its ultimate capacity of 20,000 horse-power there will 
be twelve of these overhead wires in use. The final cost 
of the transmission line alone will approximate $500,000. 
The system by which the current is carried is known os 
the Tesla polyphase system. The current is generated at 
Niagara Falls by a 5,000 horse-power alternating current 
dynamo at 2,200 volts pressure. The current is then 
passed through transformers which raise the pressure to 
11,000 volts and it is sent out over the line When 
it reaches Buffalo it is again passed through transformers 
which lower the pressure to 370 volts. As the current at 
present is used to operate street cars, it must be changed 
from alternating to direct current. This is accomplished 
by means of machines known as “rotary converters,” 
which change the 370 volts alternating to 500 volts direct 
current, and it is then ready to use to operate the cars. 
The longest electrical transmission ever attempted was 
successfully carried out during the Electrical Exposition 
in New York City, in May, 1896. About one-thirtieth of a 
horse-power was transmitted from Niagara Falls to the 
exposition building, a distance of 453 miles. The current 
was used to run a two-phase alternating current motor 
which operated a working model of the Niagara Falls 
Power Company’s plant. The current was carried on two 
wires which form a part of the Western Union Telegraph 
Company’s regular system between Niagara Falls and 
New York City. This was a most wonderful achievement 
and created great interest among electricians all over the 
world. 

Electric Railways. 

Urban passenger traffic is at present almost exclusively 
carried on by means of electric traction. The efforts of 
street railway men, now that every town of any size is 
provided with its trolly cars, seem to be toward the 
improvement of the service and the making of inter- 
urban connections. The Lake Street Elevated Road in 
Chicago, operated by electricity, was opened in 1896. 
The management claims to be saving $10,000 a month in 
operating expenses over the cost of running by steam 
power. 


401 


PUBLIC AND PRIVATE DEBT. 

.. 

“Debt is the fatal disease of republics, the first thing and the 
mightiest to undermine government and corrupt the people. ’ ’ 

—Wendell Phillips. 

F ROM the earliest dawn of history debt has ever borne 
a close relationship to slavery and servitude. “It is 
worthy of remark,” says Grote (History of Greece, 
vol. iii., p. 144), “ that the first borrowers must have been 
for the most part driven to this necessity by the pressure 
of want, and contracting 1 debt as a desperate resource 
without any fair prospect of ability to pay; debt and 
famine run together in the mind of the poet Hesiod. The 
borrower is in this unhappy state rather a distressed man 
soliciting aid than a solvent man capable of making and 
fulfilling a contract; and if he cannot find a friend to 
make a free gift to him in the former character he would 
not under the latter character obtain a loan from a 
stranger except by the promise of exorbitant interest and 
by the fullest eventual power over his person which he is 
in a position to grant.” 

“This remark,” says Prof. Nicholson in the Encyclopedia 
Britannica, “suggested by the state of society in ancient 
Greece, is largely applicable throughout the world until 
the close of the early Middle Ages.” The conditions of 
ancient usury find a graphic illustration in the account 
of the building of the second temple at Jerusalem 
(Nehemiah 5. 1-12) Some said: “We have mortgaged 
our lands, vineyards and houses that we might buy corn, 
because of the dearth.” Others said: “We have bor¬ 
rowed money for the king’s tribute, and that upon our 
lands and vineyards, . . . and lo, we bring into bondage 
our sons and our daughters to be servants, . . „ neither is 
it in our power to redeem them, for other men have our 
lands and vineyards.” 

In ancient Greece we find a law of bankruptcy resting 
on slavery. In Athens, about the time of Solon’s legisla¬ 
tion (594 B C.), the bulk of the population who had originally 
been small proprietors became gradually indebted to the 
rich to such an extent that they were practically slaves; 
those who nominally owned their property owed more 
than they could pay, and stone pillars erected on their 
land showed the amount of the debts and the names of 
the lenders. Solon’s remedy for this state of affairs was 
to cancel all debts made on the security of the land or 
the person of the debtor, and at the same time he enacted 

402 


PUBLIC AND PRIVATE DEBT. 

that henceforth no loans could he made on the bodily 
security of the debtor, and the creditor was confined to a 
share of the property. 

In Rome’s early history practically the same conditions 
prevailed as in Greece. About 500 B. C. an attempt was 
made to remedy the evil by providing- a maximum rate of 
interest, no alteration being- made, however, in the law of 
debt. In the course of a few centuries the free farmers 
were utterly destroyed. The pressure of war and taxes 
and usury drove all into debt and into practical, if not 
technical, slavery. The old law of debt was not really 
abolished until the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, who then 
practically adopted Solon’s legislation of more than five 
centuries before, but too late to save the middle class. 

In the course of centuries and the evolution of civiliza¬ 
tion chattel slavery has been abolished; but the slavery 
of debt still remains, and usury is now, as it was in all the 
history of mankind, the tool with which debt forges the 
chains of nations. It is not the province of this work to 
examine into the conditions of other countries than our 
own, but the facts now to be presented will convince the 
thoughtful reader that the American people are bound 
by chains of debt which it will require the wisest states¬ 
manship to break. 

Representative Warner of Massachusetts (Republican), 
in a speech delivered in Congress in 1894, stated that the 
interest-bearing debts of the United States, public and 
private, aggregated a grand total of $32,000,000,000 
(thirty-two billions of dollars). This would be bad enough, 
but careful estimates by conservative students of political 
economy show that the amount is very much larger. 

Col. W. H. Harvey, author of “ Coin’s Financial School,” 
makes the following itemized estimate of the interest- 
bearing debts of this country, public and private. Most 
of the figures are derived from recognized official sources : 


The national debt, according to the official 

census of 1890, was. $ 891,960,104 

State and municipal debts (census 1890)... 1,135,210,442 

Railroad bonds, 1892 (Poor’s Manual, 1893) 5,463,611,204 

Debt on farms and homes occupied by 
owner (R. R. Porter, Supt. Eleventh 
Census, in North American Review , vol. 

153, p. 618). 2,500,000,000 

Mortgaged indebtedness of business realty, 
street railways, manufactories and 
business enterprises, (estimated from 
403] partial reports of 11th census). 5,000,000,000 





PUBLIC AND PRIVATE DEBT. 


Loans from 3,773 national banks (Statisti¬ 
cal Abstracts of the United States)... 
Loans from 5,579 State savings, stock and 
private banks and trust companies 
(Statistical Abstracts of the United 

States)... 

These are figures on which something defi¬ 
nite has been obtained ; also the ratio 
of increase from 1880 to 1890, which 
was from $6,750,000,000 in 1880 to 
$19,000,000,000 in 1890. By computing 
the same ratio of increase we should 

now add. 

Mortgage debts on homes not occupied by 

owner (estimated)_. 

Overdue accounts due merchants, whole¬ 
sale and retail, drawing from 6 to 10 

per cent, interest (estimated). 

Debts due pawn-brokers, drawing from 60 
to 120 per cent, per annum or 5 to 10 

per cent, a month (estimated). 

Private debts due from individuals to indi¬ 
viduals and of which there is no public 
record or other data for census officers 
to obtain information (estimated).... 

Maritime debts (estimated). 

Overdrafts, judgments, overdue taxes and 
miscellaneous items not included in 
the foregoing (estimated). 


2,153,769,806 

2,201,764,292 


8,000,000,000 

1,000,000,000 

5,000,000,000 

1,000,000,000 

1,000,000,000 

1,000,000,000 

4,000,000,000 


Total.-.. $40,346,315,848 

In commenting on hie figures Col. Harvey says: “ Debts, 
a non-producing industry, growing to such a magnitude 
that the profits derived from all the producing industries 
of the country will not more than pay the interest on 
these debts, make the producers thereafter work for the 
benefit of the money-lender or non-producing class. When 
such a condition as to debts arises as we now have, all 
money nearly gravitates into the hands of the money¬ 
lenders and piles up in the money centers. The effect of 
debts upon civilization has never been understood gen¬ 
erally. A prosperous county can carry about a certain 
proportion of debt among its people without apparent 
injury, but when it reaches the present proportion—a 
proportion only reached three times before in the known 
history of the world—it produces commercial paralysis 

404 











PUBLIC AND PRIVATE DEBT. 


and the financial enslavement of the people. All the 
people make goes to pay the money-lenders their interest. 

“When you pay money to a merchant or a manufacturer 
that you may owe, the money you pay him is paid by him 
to others for material and other products of his business, 
with no charge or embargo upon it, but when you pay 
back to a money-lender a debt you owe him, the money 
stops there until it is loaned out again to come back with 
interest. When this grows to such an extent as to require 
all or most of the money in the country to pay the interest 
on debts, then commerce slackens and there is little or 
no money among the people except as loaned out by the 
banks and others whose business it is to loan money. 
They are dealing in the blood of commerce, and when 
they take it from the arteries of commerce there is 
commercial sickness and distress ” 

The abstract of the Eleventh Census (p. 189) gives the 
true valuation of all real and personal property in the 
United States as only $65,037,091,198. Against this we 
have an interest-bearing debt of forty billions. 

But the figures are by no means complete. Col. Harvey 
says nothing about the capital stock of the great rail¬ 
road, telegraph, telephone, insurance and other corpora¬ 
tions, most of which is “water.” The reader may say 
that this is not debt. But it is debt, as it represents what 
the companies owe to their stockholders; it draws 
interest; it must pay salaries and dividends. To say 
that we pay interest every year on forty-five billions is a 
very conservative statement. And the debt is constantly 
increasing, for the reason that there is not in circula¬ 
tion, of all kinds of money, enough to pay this interest. 
The average rate of interest is 61 per cent. Let us say 
6 per cent At this rate we pay each year $2,700,000,000— 
over $40 per capita. Think of it! Forty dollars interest 
for every man, woman and child! Two hundred dollars 
for every family! and this exclusive of taxation, which 
adds still more to the burden of life. No one claims that 
there is $40 of money per capita in circulation There 
can be only one result—and that result is slavey—slavery 
under the guise of freedom, but still slavery—unless this 
burden of debt is thrown off before the people succumb 
entirely. 

The all-absorbing scheme of the American oligarchy 
to-day is the increase of the war power of the nation. (It 
now costs $52,712,014 a year to maintain it, without count¬ 
ing cost of construction, $6,831,803 a year. See page 204, 
Abstract of Eleventh Census.) [405] 


FA AW US PLACES AND THINGS. 


If we look at the enormous interest-bearing debt that 
has been imposed upon the people of this country, we need 
not wonder why it is necessary to strengthen the war 
footing. George Washington said’ “Beware of a gov¬ 
ernment bolstered up with bayonets!” Without bayonets 
the American government of to-day would fail. 

“ First Freedom and then Glory. When that fails, 
Wealth, vice, corruption;—despotism at last. 

And History, with all her volumes vast, 

Hath but one page.” — Byron. 

Of 

Famous Places and Things. 

The ancient Greek phalanx comprised 8,000 men, form¬ 
ing a square battalion, with spears crossing each other, 
and shields united. 

The Roman legion was composed of 6,000 men, compris¬ 
ing 10 cohorts of 600 men each, with 300 horsemen. 

The Coliseum at Rome, built by Vespasian for 100,000 
spectators, was in its longest diameter 615.5 feet, and in 
the shortest 510, embraced 5£ acres, and was 120 feet high. 

Eight aqueducts supplied ancient Rome with water, 
delivering 40 millions of cubic feet daily. That of Claudia 
was 47 miles long and 100 feet high. Martia was 41 miles, 
of which 37 were on 7,000 arches 70 feet high. 

The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was 425 feet long and 
225 feet broad, with 127 columns, 60 feet high, to support 
the roof. It was 220 years in building. 

Solomon’s Temple, built B. C. 1014, was 60 cubits, or 107 
feet, in length, the breadth 20 cubits, or 36 feet, and the 
height 30 cubits, or 54 feet. The porch was 36 feet long 
and 18 feet wide. 

The largest one of the Egyptian pyramids is 588 feet 
high, 764 feet on the sides, and its base covers 14 acres. 
The layers of stones are 208 in number. Many stones are 
over 30 feet long, 4 broad, and 3 thick. 

The Temple of Ypsambul, in Nubia, is massive, and cut 
out of the solid rock. Belzoni found in it 4 figures 65 feet 
high, 25 feet over the shoulders, with a face of 7 feet, and 
the ears over 3 feet. 

Sesostris erected in the temple in Memphis statues of 
himself and his wife 50 feet high, and of his children 28 
feet. 

In the Temple of the Sun at Baalbec are stones more 

406 


FAMOUS PL A CES AND THINGS. 


than 60 feet long, 24 feet thick, and 16 broad, each 
embracing 23,000 cubic feet, cut, squared, sculptured, and 
transported from neighboring quarries Six columns are 
each 72.feet high, composed of 3 stones 7 feet in diameter 
Sesostris is credited with having transported from the 
mountains of Arabia a rock 32 feet wide and 240 feet long 

Pompey’s Pillar is 92 feet high, and 27£ round at the 
base. 

The French removed a red granite column 95 feet high, 
weighing 210 tons, from Thebes, and carried it to Paris. 
The display of costly architectural ruins at Thebes is one 
of the most astonishing to be seen anywhere in the world. 

Babel, now called Birs Nimroud, built at Babylon by 
Belus, was used as an observatory and as a Temple of the 
Sun It was composed of 8 square towers, one over the 
other, in all 670 feet high, and the same dimensions on 
each side on the ground. 

The ancient battering-ram was of timber, 60 to 100 feet 
long, fitted with an iron head. It was erected under 
shelter to protect the 60 or 100 men required to work it. 
The largest was equal in force to a 36-lb. shot from a 
cannon. 

During modern times a block of granite weighing 1,217 
tons, now used as the pedestal of the equestrian statue of 
Peter the great at St. Petersburg, was transported 4 
miles by land over a railway and 13 miles in a caisson by 
water. The railway consisted of two lines of timber 
furnished with hard metal grooves; between these grooves 
were placed spheres of hard brass about 6 inches in 
diameter. On these spheres the frame with its load was 
easily moved by 60 men, working at capstans with treble 
purchase blocks 

In 1716 Swedenborg contrived to transport (on rolling- 
machines of his own invention) over valleys and moun¬ 
tains 2 galleys, 5 large boats, and 1 sloop, from Stromstadt 
to Iderfjol (which divides Sweden from Norway on the 
South), a distance of 14 miles, by which means Charles 
XII. was able to carry on his plans, and under cover of the 
galleys and boats to transport on pontoons his heavy artil¬ 
lery to the very walls of Frederickshall 


In tanning 4 lbs. of oak bark make 1 lb of leather. 

The time occupied by gas in travelling from a gas well 
(in Pennsylvania) through 32 miles of pipe was 22 minutes. 
Pressure at the well was 55 lbs. per inch, pressure at 
discharge 49 lbs. [407] 



TO TELL THE AGE OF ANY PERSON. 

How to Tell the Age of Any Person. 

Hand this table to a young lady, and request her to tell 
you in which column or columns her age is contained, and 
add together the figures at the top of the columns in 
which her age is found, and you have the secret. Thus, 
suppose her age to be seventeen, you will find that num¬ 
ber in the first and fifth columns; add the first figures of 
these two colums. 


1 

2 

4 

8 

16 

32 

3 

3 

5 

9 

17 

33 

5 

6 

6 

10 

18 

34 

7 

7 

7 

11 

19 

35 

9 

10 

12 

12 

20 

36 

11 

11 

13 

13 

21 

37 

13 

14 

14 

14 

22 

38 

15 

15 

15 

15 

23 

39 

17 

18 

20 

24 

24 

40 

19 

19 

21 

25 

25 

41 

21 

22 

22 

26 

26 

42 

23 

23 

23 

27 

27 

43 

25 

26 

28 

28 

28 

44 

27 

27 

29 

29 

29 

45 

29 

30 

30 

30 

30 

46 

31 

31 

31- 

31 

31 

47 

33 

34 

36 

40 

48 

48 

35 

35 

37 

41 

49 

49 

37 

38 

38 

42 

50 

50 

39 

39 

39 

43 

51 

51 

41 

42 

44 

44 

52 

52 

43 

43 

45 

45 

53 

53 

45 

46 

46 

46 

54 

54 

47 

47 

47 

47 

55 

55 

49 

50 

52 

56 

56 

56 

51 

51 

53 

57 

57 

57 

53 

54 

54 

58 

58 

58 

55 

55 

55 

59 

59 

59 

57 

58 

60 

60 

60 

60 

59 

59 

61 

61 

61 

61 

61 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

63 

63 

63 

63 

63 

63 


Various Sizes of Type. 

It requires 205 lines of diamond type to make 12 inches; 
of pearl, 178; of agate, 166; of nonpareil, 143; of minion, 
128; of brevier, 1121; of bourgeois, 1024; of long primer, 89; 
of small pica, 83; of pica, 714; of english, 64." [408] 



# “ Give me liberty or give me death. ■ 


—Patrick Henry. 

THE STEPS IN THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN LIBERTY. 


Magna Charta . 


TL? EARLY seven hundred years ago was organized a movement 
which resulted in the great charter of English liberty—a 
movement which foreshadowed the battle of our American fore¬ 
fathers for political independence. On the 25th of August, 
1213, the prelates and Barons, tiring of the tyranny and vacil¬ 
lation of King John, formed a council and passed measures to 
secure their rights. After two years of contest, with many 
vicissitudes, the Barons entered London and the King fled into 
Hampshire. By agreement both parties met at Runnymede 
on the 9th of June, 1215, and after several days’ debate, on 
June 15, Magna Charta (the Great Charter), the glory of Eng¬ 
land, was signed and sealed by the sovereign. The Magna 
Charta is a comprehensive bill of rights, and, though crude in 
form, and with many clauses of merely local value, its spirit 
still lives and will live. Clear and prominent we find the 
motto, “No tax without representation.” The original docu¬ 
ment is in Latin and contains sixty-one articles, of which the 
39th and 40th, embodying the very marrow of our own State 
constitutions, are here given as translated in the English 
statutes: 

“39. No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or be 
disseised of his freehold, or liberties or free customs, or be 
otherwise destroped [damaged], nor will we press upon him 
nor seize upon him [condemn him] but by lawful judgment of 
his peers or by the law of the land. 

“40. We will sell to no man, we will not deny or defer to 
any man, either right or justice.” 

The Great Charter recognizes a popular tribunal as a 
check on the official judges and may be looked upon as the 
foundation of the writ of Habeas Corpus. It provides that no 
one is to be condemned on rumor or suspicion, but only on the 
evidence of witnesses. It affords protection against excessive 
emercements, illegal distresses and various processes for debts 

409 


410 


Steps in the Growth of American Liberty 

and services due to the crown. Fines are in all cases to be 
proportionate to the magnitude of the offense, and even 
the villein or rustic is not to be deprived of his necessary chat¬ 
tels. There are provisions regarding the forfeiture of land for 
felony. The testamentary power of the subject is recognized 
over part of his personal estate, and the rest to be divided be¬ 
tween his widow and children. The independence of the 
church is also provided for. These are the most important 
features of the Great Charter, which, exacted by men with 
arms in their hands from a resisting king, occupies so conspic¬ 
uous a place in history, which establishes the supremacy of 
the law of England over the will of the monarch, and which 
still forms the basis of English liberties. 

The MecMenburg Declaration . 

ORE than a year before the signing of the Declaration of 
l"* Independence a document was drawn up that was almost 
a model in phraseology and sentiment of the great charter of 
American freedom. There are various accounts of this matter, 
but the most trustworthy is this: 

At a public meeting of the residents of Mecklenburg 
County, North Carolina, held at Charlotte on the 20th of May, 
1775, it was 

“ Resolved , That whenever directly or indirectly abetted, 
or in any way, form or manner countenanced, the unchartered 
and dangerous invasion of our rights, as claimed by Great 
Britain, is an enemy to our country—to America—and to the 
inherent and inalienable rights of man. 

“ Resolved , That we, the citizens of Mecklenburg County, 
do hereby dissolve the political bonds which have connected 
us to the mother country, and hereby absolve ourselves from 
all allegiance to the British crown, and abjure all political con¬ 
nection, contract or association with that nation, which has 
wantonly trampled on our rights and liberties, and inhumanly 
shed the blood of American patriots at Lexington. 

“ Resolved, That we do hereby declare ourselves a free and 
independent people: are and of right ought to be a sovereign 
and self-governing association, under the control of no power 
other than that of our God and the general government of the 
Congress. To the maintenance of which independence we 


Steps in the Growth of American Liberty. 411 

solemnly pledge to each other our mutual co-operation, our 
lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor.” 

There are two other resolutions, concerning the militia 
and the administration of the law, but these, having no present 
value, are here omitted. 

The Declaration of Independence. 

In Congress , July 4, 1776. 

"lArHEN, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary 
** for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have 
connected them with another, and to assume, among the pow¬ 
ers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the 
laws of Nature and Nature’s God entitle them, a decent re¬ 
spect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should 
declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are 
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with 
certain inalienable rights; that among these are life , liberty , 
and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, 
governments are instituted among men, deriving their just 
powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any 
form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the 
right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a 
new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and 
organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most 
likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
indeed, will dictate that governments long established should 
not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly 
all experience has shown that mankind are more disposed to 
sufFer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by 
abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But 
when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invari¬ 
ably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under 
absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw 
off'such government, ayd to provide new guards for their fu¬ 
ture security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these 
colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them 
to alter their former systems of government. The history of 
the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated in¬ 
juries and usurpations, all having in direct object the estab¬ 
lishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove 
this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and 
necessary for the public good. 


412 


Steps in the Growth of American Liberty . 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate 
and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation 
till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he 
has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation 
of large districts of people,unless those people would relinquish 
the right of representation in the legislature—a right ines¬ 
timable to them, formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public 
records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance 
with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for op¬ 
posing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the 
people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to 
cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, in¬ 
capable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large, 
for their exercise, the state remaining, in the meantime, ex¬ 
posed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convul¬ 
sions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these 
States; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization 
of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migra¬ 
tion hither, and raising conditions of new appropriation of 
lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refus¬ 
ing his assent to laws establishing j udiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the 
tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their 
salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers, to harass our people, and to eat out their 
substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
without the consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
superior to, the civil power. « 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdic¬ 
tion foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our 
laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. 

For protecting them, by mock trial, from punishment for 
any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of 
these States. 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world. 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent. 


Steps in the Growth of American Liberty. 413 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by 
jury. 

For transporting us beyond the seas to be tried for pre¬ 
tended offenses. 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neigh¬ 
boring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, 
and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an ex¬ 
ample and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute 
rule into these colonies. 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valu¬ 
able laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our gov¬ 
ernments. 

For suspending our own legislatures and declaring them¬ 
selves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases what¬ 
soever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of 
his protection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our 
towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign 
mercenaries, to complete the works of death, desolation and 
tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and per¬ 
fidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally 
unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on 
the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become 
the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall them¬ 
selves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the 
merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an 
undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned 
for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions 
have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose 
character is thus marked by every act which may define a 
tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. & 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British 
brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of at¬ 
tempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable juris¬ 
diction over us. We have reminded them of the circum¬ 
stances of our emigration and settlement here. We have ap¬ 
pealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have 
conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow 
these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our con¬ 
nection and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the 
voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, ac« 


414 Steps in the Growth of American Liberty. 

quiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and 
hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in 
peace friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of 
America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the su¬ 
preme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, 
do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of 
these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these United 
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
British crown, and that all political connection between them 
and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis¬ 
solved; and that, as free and independent States, they have 
full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, es¬ 
tablish commerce and to do all other acts and things which 
independent States may of right do. And for the support of 
this declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Di¬ 
vine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, 
our fortunes and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing declaration was, by order of the Congress, 
engrossed, and signed by the following members: 

JOHN HANCOCK. 

New Hampshire —Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Mat¬ 
thew Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay —Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert 
Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island —Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut —Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, Wil¬ 
liam Williams, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York —William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis 
Lewis, Lewis Morris. 

New Jersey —Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Fran¬ 
cis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. 

Pennsylvania —Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin 
Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George 
Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. 

Delaware —Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean. 

Maryland —Samuel Chase, William Paco, Thomas Stone. 
Charles Carroll of Carrollton. 

Virginia —George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas 
Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis 
Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. 

North Carolina —William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John 
Penn. 


415 


Steps in the Growth of American Liberty. 

South Carolina —Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr. 
Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia —Button Gwinnett, liyman Hall, George Walton. 

The following clause formed part of the original Declara¬ 
tion of Independence as signed, but was finally left out of the 
printed copies “out of respect to South Carolina’’: 

“He [King George III.] has waged cruel war against hu¬ 
man nature itself, violating its most sacred rights of life and 
liberty in the persons of a distant people who never offended 
him, captivating and carrying them into slavery in another 
hemisphere or to incur miserable death in their transportation 
thither. This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel 
powers, is the warfare of the Christian King of Great Britain. 
Determined to keep a market where men should be bought 
and sold, he has at length prostituted his negative for sup¬ 
pressing any legislative attempt to prohibit and restrain this 
execrable commerce.” 


* 

Jefferson’s Political Policy. 

1. Legal equality of all human beings. 2. The people the 
only source of power. 3. No hereditary offices, nor order 
of “nobility,” nor title. 4. No unnecessary taxation. 5. No 
national banks or bonds. 6. No costly splendor of adminis¬ 
tration. 7. Freedom of thought and discussion. 8. Cjvil 
authority superior to the military. 9. No favored classes; 
no special privileges; no monopolies. 10. Free and fair 
elections; universal suffrage. 11. No public money spent 
■without warrant of’ law. 12. No mysteries in government 
hidden from the public eye. 13. Representatives bound by 
the instructions of their constituents. 14. The Constitution 
of the United States a special grant of powers limited and 
definite. 15. Freedom, sovereignty and independence of 
the respective States. 16. Absolute severance of Church 
and State. 17 The Union a compact—not a consolidation 
nor a centralization. 18. Moderate salaries, economy and 
strict accountability. 19. Gold and silver currency—sup¬ 
plemented by treasury notes bearing no interest and bot¬ 
tomed on taxes. 20. No State banks of issue. 21. No ex¬ 
pensive navy or diplomatic establishment. 22. A progress¬ 
ive or graduated tax laid upon wealth. 23. No internal 
revenue system. A complete separation of public moneys 
from bank funds. 


y "To secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity 


THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

PREAMBLE. 

llfE, the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
** perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran¬ 
quillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general 
welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and 
our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the 
United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

Section I. 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall 
be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall con¬ 
sist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Section II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be 
composed of members chosen every second year by the people 
of the several States; and the electors in each State shall have 
the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the State legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years 
a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representative and direct taxes shall be apportioned 
among the several States which may be included within this 
Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be 
determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, 
including those bound to service for a term of years, and ex¬ 
cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. 
The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, 
and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such man¬ 
ner as they shall by law direct. The number of representa¬ 
tives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each 
State shall have at least one representative; and until such 
enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall 
be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New 
York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight;Delaware,one; 
Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Caro¬ 
lina, five, and Georgia, three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue w T rits of elec¬ 
tion to fill such vacancies. 


416 


417 


The Constitution of the United States. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their 
speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of 
impeachment. 

Section III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall 
be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the 
legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have 
one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse¬ 
quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as 
may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the 
first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, 
of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of 
the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one- 
third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen 
by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legisla¬ 
ture of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary 
appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which 
shall then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have at¬ 
tained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen 
of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be pres¬ 
ident of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be 
equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also 
a president pro tempore , in the absence of the Vice-President, 
or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United 
States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im¬ 
peachments. When sitting for that purpose they shall be on 
oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States 
is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be 
convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the mem¬ 
bers present. 

7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend 
further than to removal from office, disqualification to hold 
and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United 
States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and 
subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, ac¬ 
cording to law. 

Section IV. 1. The times, places and manner of holding 
elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed 
in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may 
at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as 
to the places of choosing senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every 


418 


The Constitution of the United States. 


year; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in Decem¬ 
ber, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 

Section V. 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elec¬ 
tion, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a ma¬ 
jority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a 
smaller number may adjourn from day to day and may be au¬ 
thorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such 
manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceed¬ 
ings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with 
the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

5. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as 
in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of 
the members of either house on any question shall, at the de¬ 
sire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, 
without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three 
days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses 
shall be sitting. 

Section VI. 1. The senators and representatives shall 
receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by 
law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They 
shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of peace, 
be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the ses¬ 
sion of their respective houses, and in going to and returning 
from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

< 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under 
the authority of the United States, which shall have been 
created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, 
during such time; and no person holding any office under the 
United States shall be a member of either house during his 
continuance in office. 

Section VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall origin¬ 
ate in the House of Representatives; bat the Senate may 
propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Rep¬ 
resentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be 
presented to the President of the United States; if he approve 
he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it with his objections, 
to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall en¬ 
ter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to re¬ 
consider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that 
house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with 
the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be 


419 


The Constitution of the United States. 

reconsidered and if approved by two-thirds of that house,it shall 
become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses 
shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the 
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the 
journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be 
returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) 
after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a 
law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, 
by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it 
shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution or vote to which the concur¬ 
rence of the Senate and the House of Representatives may be 
necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be pre¬ 
sented to the President of the United States; and before the 
same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being dis¬ 
approved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate 
and House of Representatives, according to the rules and lim¬ 
itations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Section VIII. The Congress shall have power— 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and gen¬ 
eral welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and 
excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among 
the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uni¬ 
form laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the 
United States; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of for¬ 
eign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the 
securities and current coin of the United States; 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by 
securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclu¬ 
sive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed 
on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, 
and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of 
the land and naval forces; 


420 


The Constitution of the United States. 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the 
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be em¬ 
ployed in the service of the United States, reserving to the 
States, respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the 
authority of training the militia according to the discipline 
prescribed by Congress; 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatso¬ 
ever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, 
by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Con¬ 
gress, become thw seat of the government of the United States, 
and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the 
consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall 
be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, 
and other needful buildings; 

And to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper 
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other 
powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the 
United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

Section IX. 1. The migration or importation of such per¬ 
sons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to 
admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the 
year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty 
may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars 
for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of Habeas Corpus shall not 
be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, 
the public safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be 
passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless 
in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore di¬ 
rected to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from 
any State. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of com¬ 
merce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of 
another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be 
obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in 
consequence of appropriations made by lav/; and a regular 
statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all 
public moneys shall be published from time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust 
under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept 


421 


The Constitution of the United States. 

of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind what¬ 
ever, from any king, prince or foreign state. 

Section X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alli¬ 
ance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; 
coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and 
silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of at¬ 
tainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of 
contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, 
lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what 
may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; 
and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any 
State on imports or exports shall be for the use of the treas¬ 
ury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, 
without the consent of the Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, 
keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign 
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such 
imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

Section I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a 
President of the United States of America. He shall hold his 
office during the term of four years; and, together with the 
Vice-President chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such, manner as the legis- 
ture thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the 
whole number of senators and representatives to which the 
State may be entitled in the Congress; but no senator or rep¬ 
resentative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under 
the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

3. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and 
vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not 
be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And 
they shall make a list of all the persons voted for and of the 
number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and cer¬ 
tify and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the 
United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The 
President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the 
votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest, 
number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a 
majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if 
there be more than one who have such a majority, and have 
an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives 
shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President 


422 The Constitution of the United States. 

and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest 
on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose the 
President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be 
taken by States, the representation from each State having 
one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of amember 
or members from two-thirds of all the States, and a majority 
of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, 
after the choice of the President, the person having the 
greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice- 
President. But if there should remain two or more W'ho have 
equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the 
Vice-President. 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the 
electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, 
which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen 
of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Con¬ 
stitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither 
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have 
attained the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years 
a resident within the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or 
of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers 
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the 
Vice-President; and the Congress may, by law, provide for the 
case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the 
President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then 
act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his 
services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
diminished during the period for which he shall have been 
elected; and he shall not receive within that period any other 
emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall 
take the following oath or affirmation: 

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully exe¬ 
cute the office of President of the United States; and will, to 
the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Con¬ 
stitution of the United States.” 

Section II. 1. The President shall be commander-in¬ 
chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the 
militia of the several States, when called into the actual serv¬ 
ice of the United States. He may require the opinion, in 
writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive de¬ 
partments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves 


The Constitution of the United States. 423 

and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in 
cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and con¬ 
sent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of 
the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and, by 
and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint 
embassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the 
Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States 
whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, 
and which shall be established by law. But the Congress 
may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as 
they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, 
or in the heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies 
that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting 
commissions which shall expire at the end of their next 
session. 

Section III. 1. He shall, from time to time, give to the 
Congress information of the state of the Union, and recom¬ 
mend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge 
necessary and expedient. He may, on extraordinary occa¬ 
sions, convene both houses, or either of them; and in case of 
disagreement between them, with respect to the time of ad¬ 
journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall 
think proper. He shall receive embassadors and other public 
ministers. He shall take care that the laws be faithfully exe¬ 
cuted; and shall commission all officers of the United States. 

Section IV. 1. The President, Vice-President and all 
civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office 
on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or 
other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

Section I. 1. The judicial power of the United States 
shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior 
courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and estab¬ 
lish. The judges both of the Supreme and inferior courts 
shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at 
stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance of office. 

Section II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all 
cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the 
laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall 
be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting embas¬ 
sadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of ad¬ 
miralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which 
the United States shall be a party; to controversies between 
two or more States, between a State and citizens of another 


424 The Constitution of the United States. 

State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of 
the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, 
and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign 
states, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting embassadors, other public minis¬ 
ters and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, 
the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the 
other cases mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate 
jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and 
under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeach¬ 
ment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the 
State where the said crime shall have been committed; but 
when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at 
such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

Section III. 1. Treason against the United States shall 
consist only in levying war against them or in adhering to 
their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall 
be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two wit¬ 
nesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punish¬ 
ment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work cor¬ 
ruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the 
person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section I. 1. Full faith and credit shall be given imeach 
State to the public acts, records and judicial proceedings of 
every other State; and the Congress may, by general laws, 
prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and pro¬ 
ceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be en¬ 
titled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several 
States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or 
other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in an¬ 
other State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the 
State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the 
State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State under 
the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence 
of any laws or regulations therein, be discharged from such 
service or labor; but shall be delivered up on claim of the 
party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

Section III. 1. New States may be admitted by the 
Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or 
erected within the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any 


The Constitution of the United States . 425 

State be formed by the junction of two or more States or parts 
of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the 
States concerned, as well as of the Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make 
all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or 
other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in 
this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any 
claim of the United States, or of any particular State. 

Section IV. 1. The United States shall guarantee to 
every State in this Union a republican form of government, 
and shall protect each of them against invasion; and, on ap¬ 
plication of the legislature, or of the executive (when the 
legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

1. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses 
shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Con¬ 
stitution; or, on the application of the legislatures of two- 
thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro¬ 
posing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all 
intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when rati¬ 
fied by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, 
or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the 
other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; 
provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the 
year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any man¬ 
ner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of 
the fifth article; and that no State, without its consent, shall 
be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into 
before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid 
against the United States under this Constitution as under 
the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States 
which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the 
United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the 
judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the 
Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwith¬ 
standing. 

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned 
and the members of the several State legislatures, and all ex¬ 
ecutive and judicial officers, both of the United States and the 
several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to sup- 


426 The Constitution of the United States. 

port this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be re¬ 
quired as a qualification to any office or public trust under the 
United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

1. The ratification of the convention of nine States shall 
be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between 
the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of 
the States present, the seventeenth day of Decem¬ 
ber, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hun¬ 
dred and eighty, and of the Independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

George Washington, 

President , and Deputy from Virginia. 

AMENDMENTS. 

ARTICLE I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridg¬ 
ing the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the 
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government 
for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II. 

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of 
-a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms 
shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any 
house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, 
but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and 
seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue but 
upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and 
particularly describing the place to be searched, and the per¬ 
sons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or other- 


The Constitution of the United States . 427 

wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of 
a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, 
or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or pub¬ 
lic danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense 
to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, nor shall be com¬ 
pelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself, 
nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due pro¬ 
cess of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, 
without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the 
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the 
State and district wherein the crime shall have been com¬ 
mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained 
by law; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the ac¬ 
cusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to 
have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, 
and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy 
shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be 
preserved; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re¬ 
examined, in any court of the United States, than according to 
the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines 
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights 
shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by 
the people. 

ACTICLE X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved 
to the States respectively, or to the people. 

[The preceding ten amendatory articles were proposed to the 
legislatures of the States by the first Congress. September 25,1789, 
and notification of ratification received from all the States except 
Connecticut, Georgia and Massachusetts.] 

ARTICLE XI. 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be con- 


428 


The Constitution of the United States. 

strued to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or 
prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens or sub¬ 
jects of any foreign state. 

[Proposed by the Third Congress, and Congress notified of its 
adoption January 8,1798.] 


ARTICLE XII. 

1. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and 
vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, 
at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
themselves. They shall name in their ballots the person voted 
for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for 
as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all 
persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as 
Vice-President; and of the number of votes for each; which 
lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the 
seat of government of the United States, directed to the Presi¬ 
dent of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the 
presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open the 
certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person 
having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number 
of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, 
then from the persons having the highest numbers, not ex¬ 
ceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the 
House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall 
be taken by States, the representation from each State having 
one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member 
or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of 
all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the 
House of Representatives shall not choose a President when¬ 
ever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President 
shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other con¬ 
stitutional disability of the President. 

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as 
Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be 
a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if 
no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers 
on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A 
quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole, 
number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shar 
be necessary to a choice. 

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office 
of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the 
United States. 


The Constitution of the United States. 429 

[Proposed by the Eighth Congress, and declared adopted Sep¬ 
tember 25, 1804, by proclamation of the Secretary of State.] 

ARTICLE XIII. 

1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly 
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place 
subject to their jurisdiction. 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

[Proposed by the Thirty-eighth Congress, and declared adopted 
December 18,1805, by proclamation of the Secretary of State.] 

ARTICLE XIV. 

Section I. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of 
the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No 
State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the 
privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor 
shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its 
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section II. Representatives shall be apportioned among 
the several States according to their respective numbers, 
counting the whole number of persons in each State, exclud¬ 
ing Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any 
election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-Presi¬ 
dent of the United States, representatives in Congress, the 
executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of 
the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabit¬ 
ants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens 
of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for par¬ 
ticipation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representa¬ 
tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the num¬ 
ber of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of 
male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section III. No person shall be a senator or representa¬ 
tive in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or 
hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or 
under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a 
member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or 
as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or 
judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the 
United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion 
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies there 
of; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, 
remove such disability. 


430 The Constitution of the United States. 

Section IV. The validity of the public debt of the United 
States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for pay¬ 
ment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing in¬ 
surrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither 
the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt 
or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against 
the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of 
any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be 
held illegal and void. 

Section V. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by 
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

[Proposed by the Thirty-ninth Congress and declared adopted 
by concurrent resolution of Congress, July 21,1868.] 

ARTICLE XV. 

Section I. The right of citizens of the United States to 
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States,or 
any State, on account of race, color or previous condition of 
servitude. 

Section II. The Congress shall have power to enforce 
this article by appropriate legislation. 

[Proposed by the Fortieth Congress, and declared adopted by 
proclamation of the Secretary of State, March 30,1870.] 

* 

Workingmen Easily Gulled. 

Who fought for King George in 1776 ? Working people. 

What interest did they have inbeing ruled by him? None. 

Why, then, did they risk their lives for him? Because he 
hired them. 

Where did the king get the money to pay them? By tax¬ 
ing them. 

Then they really paid themselves for fighting? Certainly. 

In every war ever fought the working people paid the ex¬ 
penses. Why did they do it? For the same reason that 
working people vote the same ticket as the Pullmans, Cleve¬ 
lands, Carlisles, Shermans and their fellows—they don’t 
know any better. They can’t see the cat. 

Will they ever learn better? Oh, maybe. 

¥ 

“ What constitutes a state ? . „ 

. . . Men who their duties know, 

But know their rights, and, knowing 
Dare maintain.” —Jones. 


“ Property , the dominion of man over external objects, 
has its origin from the Creator , as his gift to mankind — 
Blackstone (Dunlap's Manual of the General Principles of 
Law). 


THE LAWS OF PROPERTY. 

<\> 

MEMORABLE occasion in the history of American 
* politics was on the evening of October 6,1894, when the 
venerable Lyman Trumbull addressed a vast audience at Cen¬ 
tral Music Hall, Chicago. What he said about the laws of 
property is now of special interest to reformers and students 
of political economy: 

It is chiefly the laws of property which have enabled the 
few to accumulate vast wealth while the masses live in pov¬ 
erty. For many generations our laws have been framed with 
a view to the claims of property rather than the rights of man. 
For ages the money power has controlled legislation the world 
over, and, I am sorry to say, has exercised a controlling influ¬ 
ence in our own land for many years. In the language of the 
Declaration of Independence: “All men are created equal and 
endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that 
among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” 
If man has an inalienable right to life, then he has a right to 
the means which sustain life, and of which he cannot be justly 
deprived by laws which permit one man, or set of men, to so 
absorb the means of life as not to leave sufficient to sustain 
the lives of all. If man has an inalienable right to liberty, 
then he cannot be justly deprived of liberty by another who 
assumes the right at his mere discretion to abridge it. If man 
has an inalienable right to the pursuit of happiness, then he 
cannot be justly deprived of that right by laws interposed in 
the way of its pursuit. 

Do such laws exist, and if so, how came they into exist¬ 
ence? 

In Great Britain, whence we have derived most of our 
laws of property, the policy is to build up great estates. 
Hence, by the laws of that country, land descends to the 
eldest son, to the exclusion of the other children. The effect 
of this is to limit the ownership of land to a few persons. 
Thirty-four persons in that country own six million two hun¬ 
dred and eleven thousand acres of land. The Duke of Suther¬ 
land is said to own one million three hundred and fifty-eight 

431 


432 


The Laws of Properly . 

thousand acres, and a few other dukes and earls own a great 
proportion of the land of the United Kingdom. What has 
brought about this wide difference in the ownership of land? 
Certainly the few who own the millions of acres, from which 
they derive revenue, in some instances of more than five hun¬ 
dred thousand dollars annually, in rentals, have not earned 
these vast estates by their own industry, but on the contrary 
it is by force of statutory enactments that these vast estates 
have been accumulated and perpetuated in few hands. 

In this country we have abolished the laws of primogeni¬ 
ture, by which the eldest son inherited the landed estate of 
his ancestor, but here vast estates are being rapidly accumu¬ 
lated in few hands, and this is especially true during and since 
the war of the rebellion. In 1860 there were few millionaires 
and few large fortunes in this country, but since then a rich 
class has sprung up, so that in 1890, according to reliable sta¬ 
tistics, ten per cent, of the people own as much wealth as the 
other ninety per cent. In 1890 there were 12,690,182 families 
in the United States, and according to Geo. K. Holmes, in the 
Political Science Quarterly , 4,047 of these possessed about 
seven-tenths as much as do 11,593,887 families. Just think of 
it. One family possessing the wealth of 2,000 families the 
country over! In the city of New York alone, there are said 
to be five men whose aggregated wealth exceeds $500,000,000. 
How many hundred millions are held by various wealthy cor¬ 
porations, coal and oil syndicates and other trusts, I am unable 
to state. In each of the cities of New York and Chicago more 
than 100,000 men and women, willing to work, were out of em¬ 
ployment last winter, many of whom must have perished from 
want, but for charity’s aid. These conditions another winter 
promise to be no better. 

The richest corporations and persons on earth are probably 
in the United States. How have they accumulated their vast 
fortunes? Surely not by their own industry and thrift, but 
by the aid of statutes regulating the rights of property, 
generally statutes providing for the transmission of property 
by descent or by will, or the creation of monopolies. 

It is only by virtue of statutory law that man is permitted 
to make disposition of his property by will, and it is only by 
virtue of statutory law that one person is permitted to inherit 
property from another, and it is by virtue of statute law that 
great corporate monopolies have been built up. 

No man has a natural right to dispose of property after 
death, nor has one person a natural right to inherit property 
from another. As Blackstone says: “There is no foundation 
in nature or in natural law why the son should have the right 
to exclude his fellow-creatures from a determinate spot of 


433 


The Laivs of Property. 

land because his father did so before him, or why the occu¬ 
pier of a particular field or of a jewel, when lying on his death¬ 
bed, and no longer able to maintain possession, should be able 
to tell the rest of the world which of them should enjoy it 
after him.” 

Under Illinois laws, the owner of real estate is permitted to 
lease it for an indefinite period, and compel future generations 
who occupy the premises to pay rent to unborn generations. 
Leases for ninety-nine years are quite common in Chicago. It 
is by no divine law that the occupant of land to-day is allowed 
to compel its occupant one hundred years hence to pay 
tribute for its use. The statutes of Illinois have given to the 
owner of property the right to dispose of it by will, not 
wholly, but to a certain extent. If married, neither the 
husband nor wife can give away the homestead or dower 
rights of the other, nor can creditors, heirs or devisees take 
from the widow her allowance. 

The money power has governed legislation in all civilized 
countries for generations. It matters not what party is in 
power in the national or State governments of our own country, 
the money power has exercised a controlling influence in 
many instances in the shaping and administration of our laws. 

If the accumulation of vast fortunes goes on another 
generation with the same accelerated rapidity as during the 
present, the wealth of this country will soon be consolidated 
in the hands of a few corporations and individuals to as great 
an extent as the landed interests of Great Britain now are. 

What is the remedy for this state of things, which, if 
permitted to continue, will make the masses of the people de¬ 
pendent upon the generosity of the few for the means to live? 
So far as concerns corporations of a public or quasi-public 
character—and none others should exist—the remedy is simple. 
They are completely under the control of the legislatures, 
whence they derive all their powers. 

It is entirely competent for a legislature to provide the 
manner in which the business of a corporation shall be con¬ 
ducted. It may provide that the directors shall consist of few 
or many persons, that a portion of them shall be taken from 
the employes of the corporation, selected by them, another 
part from the stockholders who furnish the capital for carry¬ 
ing on its business. It may provide that the employes shall 
first be paid from the revenues of the company a certain fixed 
sum, graduated according to the character of the work per¬ 
formed by each; that a fair rate of interest shall then be paid 
upon the capital invested, and the balance be distributed 
upon some equitable principle between the employes and the 
stockholders. In case of loss the stockholders would have to 


434 The Laws of Property. 

Guffer, since the employe, having a right to live, must in all 
cases receive his daily wages when dependent upon them for 
subsistence. This principle receives judicial sanction from 
United States Circuit Judge Caldwell, in a recent order en¬ 
tered in case of the Santa Fe Railroad, as follows : 

“Ordered that the men employed by the receivers in the 
operation of the road and the conduct of its business shall be 
paid their monthly wages not later than the 15th of the 
month following their accrual. If the earnings of the road 
are not sufficient to pay the wages of the men as herein di¬ 
rected, the receivers are hereby authorized and required to 
borrow from time to time, as occasion may require, a sufficient 
sum of money for that purpose. The obligations of the re¬ 
ceivers for money borrowed for this purpose specified in this 
order shall constitute a lien on the properly of the trust prior 
and superior to all liens thereon.” 

Under the powers inherent in every sovereignty, government 
may regulate the conduct of its citizens to ward“each other, and, 
when necessary for the public good, the manner in which each 
shall use his own property. 

Formerly, corporations having special privileges were 
created by special acts, which the courts construed to be con¬ 
tracts between the granting power and the corporators, which 
once granted could not be repealed or varied by the granting 
power. This granting of charters to favored individuals, con¬ 
ferring upon them privileges not possessed by the general pub¬ 
lic, became obnoxious to public sentiment, and, as a conse¬ 
quence, general laws have been passed in this and many other 
States, under which any three persons may become incorpor¬ 
ated for any private purpose. This has become a worse evil 
than the old system af granting special charters. Under the 
general law enacted in this State twenty years ago, I am in¬ 
formed, 27,200 corporations have been created. 

Irresponsible persons are often induced, for a small consid¬ 
eration, to form corporations with a proposed capital of millions; 
to subscribe for the whole stock except a share or two, and for 
a fancied, imaginary or worthless consideration, to issue to 
themselves fully paid up stock, which is subsequently trans¬ 
ferred to the real parties in interest, who expect thereby to 
escape personal liability if the concern is a failure, and to pocket 
the profits if a success. Business of all sorts is now to a great 
extent carried on in the name of corporations, in order that the 
proprietors may escape personal responsibility. How can the 
individual, who is personally responsible for his contracts, suc¬ 
cessfully compete with a corporation run by persons who incur 
no such responsibility ? Doing business in a corporate name 
not only paralyzes individual effort, but leads to a concentra¬ 
tion of capital—the great evil of our time. The remedy for this 


435 


The Laws of Property. 

growing state of things would be to restrict the formation o^ 
corporations to such as are formed for public purposes, or such 
as the public have an interest in. Seventy-eight percent, of 
the great fortunes of the United States are said to be derived 
from permanent monopoly privileges which ought never to have 
been granted. 

As before stated, the power to dispose of property after 
death by will is conferred by statute, under certain limita¬ 
tions. Why should this privilege be given to dispose of more 
than a fixed amount of property to any one individual, say 
property to the value of not over five hundred thousand dol¬ 
lars to the wife, of not more than one hundred thousand dollars 
to each child, and of not more than fifty thousand dollars to 
any other relative, extending to the third or fourth degree, and 
that the balance of the estate should escheat to the State, to 
be used by it for the support of schools, charitable institutions, 
the employment of laborers in making roads, and other good 
purposes? 

The law now provides for the escheat of estates of persons 
dying without heirs. The same limitation might be put upon 
inheritances where there is no will, and in this way the accum¬ 
ulation of vast estates by inheritance or devise would be 
checked, and property, especially landed estates, which by na¬ 
ture belong to all, would be more equally distributed. It should 
not be forgotten that the method of transmitting property 
from the dead to the living is entirely derived from the state. 
If public policy requires that the state should give to the dying 
possessor, no longer able to control or take with him his pos¬ 
sessions, the privilege of disposing of so much as may be con¬ 
ducive to the comfort and happiness of his surviving kindred, 
does it require that this privilege should be extended to his 
disposition of millions to the injury of the rest of mankind? 

If it be said that to limit the privilege of disposing of ex¬ 
ceeding a million dollars of property by devise or descent would 
check enterprise and industry, as no man would struggle to 
acquire property which he could not leave to his surviving 
kindred, my reply is, that man by his own thrift and industry 
is seldom able to acquire more than a million dollars’ worth of 
property. Fortunes exceeding that amount are usually ac¬ 
quired by speculation, trickery, or some device by which one 
man takes advantage of his fellow-man, and which, if not ille¬ 
gal, is immoral; or by members of privileged monopolies, trusts 
and syndicates, 

I don’t mean to say that all great fortunes exceeding a mil¬ 
lion have been acquired by immoral means, but such as have not 
are the exception, and to limit the privilege of disposing of more 
than a million by devise or descent would not affect one in ten 


436 


The Laws of Property. 


thousand of the people. In short, such limitations would tend 
to discourage, not honest enterprise and industry, but stock 
jobbing, trickery and other questionable methods of acquiring 
vast fortunes. 

We have already abolished primogeniture, by which the 
eldest son, to the exclusion of all other children, inherits the 
entire landed estate of his ancestor, and no one in this country 
at this day would think of restoring that right, although it 
still obtains in England. If limitations should be put upon the 
disposition of vast estates by will or descent, futu; e generations 
would doubtless look upon our present laws, which allow such 
estates to be perpetuated in certain families, with the same 
disfavor with which we now look upon the laws of primogeni¬ 
ture. 

Evasions of laws limiting the amount of property to be de¬ 
vised or inherited, by conveyances during life, could be pro¬ 
hibited in like manner as conveyances in fraud of creditors are 
now prohibited. 

God Save the People! 

When wilt thou save thy people? 

O God of mercy! when? 

Not kings and lords, but nations; 

Not thrones and crowns, but men! 

Flowers of thy heart, O God, are they; 

Let them not pass like weeds away— 

Their heritage a sunless day. 

God save the people! 

Shall crime bring crime forever, 

Strength aiding still the strong? 

Is it thy will, O Father, 

That man shall toil for wrong? 

“No!” say thy mountains. “No!” thy skies; 

Man’s clouded sun shall brightly rise 

And songs ascend instead of sighs! 

God save the people! 

When wilt thou save the people? 

O God of mercy! when? 

The people, Lord, the people! 

Not thrones and crowns, but men! 

God, save the people, thine they are, 

Thy children, as thy angels fair; 

Save them from bondage and despair! 

God save the people! —Ebenezer Elliott. 


y The great Napoleon said, after studying a set of compound 
interest tables: “ There is one thing to my mind more won - 
derful than all the rest, and that is, that the deadly fact 
buried in those tables has not before this devoured the whole 
worldT 


INTEREST AND USURY. 

'T'HE ethical sense of mankind saw at an early day the wrong 
-*■ of usury. The Mosaic law was very explicit on the sub¬ 
ject. Cicero mentions that Cato, being asked what he thought 
of usury, made no other answer to the question than by asking 
the person who spoke to him what he thought of murder. 
The Christian Church, in its early days and until the 
end of the Middle Ages, utterly forbade the exaction of inter¬ 
est. In the reign of Edward VI. a prohibitory act was passed, 
for the stated reason that the charging of interest was “a vice 
most odious and detestable and contrary to the word of God.” 
It was not until the time of the Reformation that this inter¬ 
pretation of the divine law was ever questioned. Calvin was 
one of the first to contend that the sentiment against exact¬ 
ing interest arose from a mistaken view of the Mosaic law. A 
series of enactments, known as the Usury Laws, restricted the 
maximum rate to be charged in England. By Act 21 James 
I., this rate was fixed at 8 per cent. During the Common¬ 
wealth this rate was reduced to 6 per cent., and by Act 12 
Anne to 5 per cent., at which rate it stood until 1839. In the 
United States the legal rate of interest varies, nearly all the 
States having passed statutes fixing a maximum rate. 

“It is against nature for money to breed money.” 

“Usury bringeth the treasures of a realm or state into a 
few hands; for the usurer being at certainties, and others at 
uncertainties, at the end of the game most of the money will 
be in the box; and ever a state flourishetn when wealth is more 
equally spread.” 

These quotations are from the essay Of Usury , by that 
wisest of philosophers, Francis Bacon. The reader must bear 
in mind that while nowadays the term “usury” is applied gen- 

437 


438 


Interest and Usury. 

erally only to excessive interest, in Bacon’s time the word was 
used for any rate of premium or interest for the use of money. 
The word usance , now obsolete in that sense, conveyed the 
same meaning, and is used in Shakespeare’s “Merchant of 
Venice.” The provocation which Antonio first gave Shylock 
was that— 

“He lends out money gratis and brings down 
The rate of usance here with us in Venice.” 

All are familiar with the conditions which Shylock ex¬ 
acted of Antonio: 

Shylock. This kindness will I show. 

Go with me to a notary, seal me there 
Your single bond; and, in a merry sport, 

If you repay me not on such a day, 

In such a place, such sum or sums as are 
Express’d in the condition, let the forfeit 
Be nominated for an equal pound 
Of your fair flesh, to be cut off and taken 
In what part of your body pleaseth me. 

Antonio. Content, i’faith: I’ll seal to such a bond 
And say there is much kindness in the Jew. 

Bassanio. You shall not seal to such a bond for me: 

I’ll rather dwell in my necessity. 

Antonio. Why, fear not, man; I will not forfeit it; 
Within these two months, that’s a month before 
This bond expires, I do expect return 
Of thrice three times the value of this bond. . . . 

Come on; in this there can be no dismay; 

My ships come home a month before the day. 

But Antonio’s ships did not come in—just as the farmer’s 
crop often fails and the artisan’s employment gives out just 
when the mortgage is due—and Shylock claimed his pound of 
flesh. “The Merchant of Venice” is a comedy, and Shylock, 
Bassanio and Antonio are mere creatures of imagination; but 
there are thousands of tragedies enacted every day in real life 
in which real Shylocks play a part. The Shylocks of to-day 
are quite unlike the Shylock of fiction, however. Banker 
Morgan, who negotiated with Grover Cleveland the star-cham¬ 
ber bond deal by which the American government sold to the 


439 


Interest and Usury. 

Rothschilds at a premium of only 4 % per cent. $100,000,000 of 
interest-bearing gold bonds which were immediately after 
quoted at a premium of 21 per cent., is a philanthropist. As 
soon as possible after the deal was made his portrait appeared 
in many of the great dailies with a fulsome account of his 
many charities! It will take many a pound of human flesh, 
many a drop of life’s blood, to pay the interest on the bonds 
which he negotiated, and out of the sale of which he made a 
cool million in one day. 

The Bible has much to say on the subject of usury. The 
writer has never heard a sermon preached on any of the fol¬ 
lowing texts, perhaps because bankers and money-lenders rent 
the best pews. Remember that usury here means simply in¬ 
terest—not excessive interest: 

Exodus 22:25:—“If thou lend money to any of my people 
that is poor by thee, thou shalt not be to him as an usurer, 
neither shalt thou lay upon him usury.” 

Deuteronomy 23: 19-20:—“Thou shalt not lend upon usury 
to thy brother; usury of money, usury of victuals, usury of 
anything that is lent upon usury. Unto a stranger thou 
mayest lend upon usury, but unto thy brother thou shalt not 
lend upon usury r that the Lord thy God may bless thee.” 

Nehemiah 5:7:—“Then I consulted with myself, and I re¬ 
buked the nobles, and the rulers, and said unto them: Ye ex¬ 
act usury every one of his brother. And I set a great assem¬ 
bly against them.” 

Psalms 15:5:—David describes a citizen of Zion: “He 
that putteth not out his money to usury, nor taketh reward 
against the innocent.” 

A Chapter from “Caesar’s Column.” 

I cannot do better here than quote a significant chapter 
from Ignatius Donnelly’s powerful novel “Caesar’s Column,” 
which certainly did as much as any book ever printed to set 
people thinking: 

“But what would you do, my good Gabriel,” said Maxi¬ 
milian, smiling, “if the reformation of the world were placed in 
your hands? Every man has a Utopia in his head. Give me 
some idea of yours.” 


440 


Interest and Usury . 

“First,” I said, “I should do away with all interest on 
money. Interest on money is the root and ground of the 
world's troubles. It puts one man in a position of safety, 
while another is in a condition of insecurity, and thereby it at 
once creates a radical distinction in human society.” 

“How do you make that out?” he asked. 

“The lender takes a mortgage on the borrower’s land, or 
house, or goods, for, we will say, one-half or one-third their 
value; the borrower then assumes all the chances of life to re¬ 
pay the loan. If he is a farmer, he has to run the risk of the 
fickle elements. Rains may drown, droughts may burn up his 
crops. If a merchant, he encounters all the hazards of trade; 
the bankruptcy of other tradesmen; the hostility of the ele¬ 
ments sweeping away agriculture, and so affecting commerce; 
the tempests that smite his ships, etc. If a mechanic, he is 
still more dependent upon the success of all above him and 
the mutations of commercial prosperity. He may lose employ¬ 
ment; he may sicken; he may die. But behind all these risks 
stands the money-lender, in perfect security. The failure of 
his customers only enriches him; for he takes for his loan prop¬ 
erty worth twice or thrice the sum he has advanced upon it. 
Given a million of men and a hundred years of time, and the 
slightest advantage possessed by any one class among the mil¬ 
lion must result, in the long run, in the most startling dis¬ 
crepancies of condition. A little evil grows like a ferment—it 
never ceases to operate; it is always at work. Suppose I bring 
before you a handsome, rosy-cheeked young man, full of life 
and hope and health. I touch his lip with a single bacillus of 
pthisispulmonalis —consumption. It is invisible to the eye; 
it is too small to be weighed. Judged by all the tests of the 
senses,it is too insignificant to be thought of; but it has the 
capacity to multiply itself indefinitely. The youth goes off 
singing. Months, perhaps years, pass before the deadly disor¬ 
der begins to manifest itself, but in time the step loses its elas¬ 
ticity; the eyes become dull; the roses fade from the cheeks; 
the strength departs, and eventually the joyous youth is but 
a shell—a cadaverous, shrunken form, inclosing a shocking 
mass of putridity; and death ends the dreadful scene. Give 
one set of men in a community a financial advantage over the 
rest, however slight—it may be almost invisible—and at the 
end of centuries that class so favored will own everything and 
wreck the country. _ A penny, they say, put out at interest the 
day Columbus sailed from Spain, and compounded ever 
since, would amount now [A. D. 1990] to more than all the as¬ 
sessed value of all the property, real, personal and mixed, on 
the two continents of North and South America.” 

“But,” said Maximilian, “how would the men get along 
who wanted to borrow?” 


441 


Interest and Usury. 

“The necessity to borrow is one of the results of borrow¬ 
ing. The disease produces the symptoms. The men who are 
enriched by borrowing are infinitely less in number than those 
who are ruined by it; and every disaster to the middle class 
swells the number and decreases the opportunities of the help¬ 
less poor. Money in itself is valueless. It becomes valuable 
only by use—by exchange for things needful for life or com¬ 
fort. If money could not be loaned it would have to be put 
out by the owner of it in business enterprises, which would 
employ labor; and as the enterprise would not then have to 
support a double burden—to-wit, the man engaged in it and 
the usurer who sits securely upon his back—but would have 
to support only the former usurer, that is, the present em¬ 
ployer—its success would be more certain; the general pros¬ 
perity of the community would be increased thereby, and there 
would be, therefore, more enterprises, more demand for labor, 
and consequently higher wages. Usury kills off the enterpris¬ 
ing members of a community by bankrupting them, and leaves 
only the very rich and the very poor; but every dollar the 
employers of labor pay to the lenders of money has to come 
eventually out of the pockets of the laborers. Usury is there¬ 
fore the cause of the first aristocracy, and out of this grow all 
the other aristocracies. Inquire where the money came from 
that now oppresses mankind, in the shape of great corpora¬ 
tions, combinations, etc., and in nine cases out of ten you will 
trace it back to the fountain of interest on money loaned. The 
coral island is built up of the bodies of dead coral insects; 
large fortunes are usually the accumulations of wreckage, and 
every dollar represents disaster.” 

How Wealth Accumulates. 

As proof of the fact that it is a mighty fortunate thing for 
humanity that the Rothschilds did not conduct a bank in the 
year 1 A. D., I reprint from the Twentieth Century the follow¬ 
ing article by H. C. Whitaker, which shows the beauties of in¬ 
terest-drawing: 

“Had one cent been loaned on the 14th day of March, 
A. D. 1, interest being allowed at the rate of 6 per cent., com¬ 
pounded yearly, then 1894 years later—that is, on March 14, 
1895—the amount due would be $8,497,840,000,000,000,000,000,- 
000,000,000,000,000,000,900,000 (8,497,840,000 decillions). If it 
were desired to pay this in gold, 23.2 grains to the dollar, then, 
taking spheres of pure gold, each the size of the earth, it 
would take 610,070,000,000,000,000 of them to pay for that cent. 
Placing these spheres in a straight row, their combined length 


442 


Interest and Usury. 

would be 4,826,870,000,000,000,000,000 miles, a distance which 
it would take light (going at the rate of 186,330 miles per sec¬ 
ond) 820,890,000 years to travel. 

“The planets and stars of the entire solar and stellar uni¬ 
verse, as seen by the great Lick telescope, if they were all of 
solid gold, would not nearly pay the amount. A single sphere 
to pay the whole amount, if placed with its center at the sun, 
would have its surface extending 563,580,000 miles beyond the 
orbit of the planet Neptune, the farthest in our system. 

“It may be added that if the earth had contained a popu¬ 
lation of ten billions, each one making a million dollars a sec¬ 
ond, then to pay for that cent it would have required their 
combined earnings for 26,938,500,000,000,000,000,000 years.” 

“The young lambs are bleating in the meadows, 

The young birds are chirping in their nest, 

The young fawns are playing with the shadows, 

The young flowers are blowing toward the west— 

But the young, young children, oh, my brothers, 

They are weeping bitterly ! 

They are weeping in the playtime of the others, 

In the country of the free ! ” — Mrs. Browning. 

* 

Banks were unknown in Virginia until 1804, yet no people 
enjoyed more happiness or prosperity. See the official 
report of James Guthrie, Secretary of the Treasury, June 
30, 1855. 

¥ 

“ A weapon that comes down as still 
As snowflakes fall upon the sod, 

But executes a freeman’s will 

As lightning does the will of God; 

And from its force nor doors nor locks 

Can shield you;—’tis the ballot-box.”— Pierpont. 

¥ 

“ What stronger breast-plate than a heart untainted ? 
Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just; 

And he but naked, though locked up in steel, 

Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.” 

— Shakespeare . 


{< The American people must learn the lesson of money % or 
they arc lost: 1 


THE PHILOSOPHY OF MONEY. 

By Howard S. Taylor. 

'THE word “money” is derived from the Latin moneta (from 
moneo, to warn), meaning “warned” or “admonished.” 
Moneta was a surname of Juno, because she was believed to 
have warned the Romans by means of an earthquake to offer 
sacrifice. In the temple of Juno Moneta coins were made— 
hence moneta , meaning either a mint, or coin, or coined money. 

The English word “money” is comprehensively defined by 
Webster as “any currency usually and lawfully employed in 
buying and selling;” and the word “currency” is defined as 
“that which is in circulation or is given and taken as having 
or representing value.” 

Varieties of Money. 

Until recent times many substances entirely foreign to our 
modern ideas of money were used as measures of value, among 
which were: 

Leather. In Rome and Sparta 700 B. C., and in Persia, 
Tartary, Prance and Spain as late as the sixteenth century. 

Bark. China used the inner bark of the mulberry tree in 
the fourteenth century. 

Base Metals. Iron was used by the ancient Spartans, Ro¬ 
mans and Hebrews; tin was used in ancient Syracuse and 
Britain, while lead is still used in Burmah and brass in China. 

All of these forms of money were stamped with some sort 
of design indicating their exchangeable value and by whose 
authority they were issued. 

Wood. Several ancient governments used money made of 
wood. From the time of Henry I. (A. D. 1273), up to the foun¬ 
ds 


444 The Philosophy of Money. 

dation of the Bank of England in 1694, a period of over four 
hundred years, England circulated a legal-tender money made 
of wood, called “exchange tallies.” The “tally” issued by the 
British Exchequer was a stick or bit of peeled rod upon 
which notches were cut, indicative of an account, pledge or 
other commercial transaction. It was split in such a way as 
to divide the notches. One-half the “tally” was given to the 
payer and one-half was retained by the Exchequer; and the 
transaction might be verified at any time by fitting the two 
halves together, when the notches would be found to “tally” 
with each other if the check had not been tampered with. 
Jonathan Duncan said that these wooden representatives of 
value circulated freely among the people and sustained the 
trade of England. 

Wampum. One of the prevailing forms of money in use 
among the New England colonies was wampum. This was 
simply strings of white and black beads made from sea-shells 
found along the New England coasts. In 1641 Massachusetts 
made these beads a legal tender at the rate of six for a penny 
up to the sum of £10; and they were receivable, at that rate, 
for all judgments and taxes. In 1643 the limit of this legal 
tender was reduced to 40 shillings. In 1649 the colony passed 
a statute forbidding the receipt of wampum for taxes, and its 
use as money rapidly declined, though it still circulated in a 
limited way in several of the colonies as late as 1704. 

Tobacco. The people of Maryland and Virginia, before 
the Revolutionary War and for some time after, in default of 
gold and silver, used tobacco as money, made it money by law, 
reckoned the fees and salaries of government officers in tobac¬ 
co and collected the public taxes in that article. 

Peltries. In an early day several of the Western States 
made peltries a legal tender. In 1785 the people of the terri¬ 
tory now called Tennessee organized a State called “Franklin” 
and passed the following act, which is illustrative of similar 
acts in other States: 

“Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of 
Franklin, and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the 

same, 


445 


The Philosophy of Money. 

“That from the first day of January, 1789, the salaries of 
the officers of the Commonwealth be as follows: 

“His Excellency the Governor, per annum, 1,000 d*. ’•skins. 

“His Honor the Chief Justice, per annum, 500 dee skins. 

“The Secretary to His Excellency, the Governor, px.. > .an¬ 
num, 500 raccoon skins. 

“The Treasurer of the State, 450 raccoon skins. 

“Each County Clerk, 300 beaver skins. 

“Clerk of the House of Commons, 200 raccoon skins. 

“Members of the Assembly, per diem, 3 raccoon skins. 

“Justice’s fees for signing a w r arrant, 1 muskrat skin. 

“To the Constable for serving a warrant, 1 mink skin. 

“Enacted into law the 18th day of October, 1789, under the 
great seal of State.” 

Paper. The first printed bank notes of which we have any 
record were issued by Palmstruck, a banker of Sweden, in 1660. 

Gold and Silver have been used as money metals from 
the earliest times of recorded history. The Bible has many 
references to the use of both gold and silver as early as the 
age of Abraham. 

Intrinsic Value. 

No kind of money, as such, has any intrinsic value, for the 
instant the material of which the money is made is used for 
another purpose it ceases to be money. As money, the sole 
value of the material arises from its function as a circulating 
medium; and even the value of gold and silver as used in the 
arts and sciences will be largely determined by the demand 
for them for money purposes. Of recent years the general de¬ 
monetization of silver by the principal nations has depreciated 
the value of that metal about one-half, and there is but little 
doubt that if gold were similarly demonetized it would corre¬ 
spondingly decline in value. This was the opinion of Cernuschi. 
He says: “If all nations should demonetize gold it would be 
worth more than copper, but it would not be worth much 
more.” 

Appleton’s American Encyclopedia (vol. XI, p. 735) says: 
“After the discovery of gold in California, Austria, the Nether¬ 
lands, Belgium and Germany all demonetized gold and adopted 
silver as the legal tender at a fixed rate. In those countries 
gold only circulated as a commodity, subject to daily fluctu- 


446 


The Philosophy of Money. 

ations in value;and as a consequence, deprived as it was of 
legal support as money, it was but little used.” 

Upon the subject of intrinsic value the following author¬ 
ities are cited; 

“Congress shall have power to coin money and regulate 
the value thereof.”— Constitution of the United States. 

“To coin money and regulate the value thereof as an act of 
sovereignty involves the right to determine what shall be 
taken and received as money; at what measure or price it shall 
be taken; and what shall be its effect when passed or tendered 
in payment or satisfaction of legal obligations. Government 
can give to its stamp upon leather the same money value as if 
put upon gold or silver or any other material. The authority 
which coins or stamps itself upon the article can select what 
substance it may deem suitable to receive the stamp and pass 
as money; and it can affix what value it deems proper, inde¬ 
pendent of the intrinsic value of the substance upon which it 
is affixed. The currency value is in the stamp, when used as 
money, and not in the material independent of the stamp. In 
other words, the money quality is the authority which makes it 
current and gives it power to accomplish the purpose for which 
it was created.”— Tiffany , Constitutional Law. 

“Whatever power is over the currency is vested in Con¬ 
gress. If the power to declare what is money is not in Con¬ 
gress, it is annihilated. We repeat, money is not a substance, 
but an impression of legal authority, a printed legal decree.” 
— U. S. Supreme Court (12 Wallace, p. 519). 

“The gold dollar is not a commodity having an intrinsic 
value, but money having only a statutory value; and every dol¬ 
lar has the same value without regard to the material. The 
gold dollar has not intrinsic valuo.”— Supreme Court of Iowa 
{16 Iowa Rep., p. 246). 

“Money is the medium of exchange. Whatever performs 
this function, does the work, is money, no matter what it is 
made of.”— Walker , Political Economy. 

“An article is determined to be money by reason of the 
performance by it of certain functions, without regard to its 
form or substance.”— Appleton's Encyclopedia. 

“Money is a value created by law. Its basis is legal, and 
not material. It is, perhaps, not easy to convince one that the 
value of metallic money is created by iaw It is, however a 
fact.”— Cernuschi. 

Specie Basis. 

Where paper currency is made redeemable in gold or silver 
the paper money is said to rest on a “specie basis.” This 


447 


The Philosophy of Money. 

monetary scheme now prevails throughout the civilized world. 
In almost every commercial nation a large portion of the cur¬ 
rency in use is paper money in theory, at least, convertible into 
metallic money at the option of the holder. This financial 
system is framed upon the violent hypothesis that real money 
can only be made of the precious metals and that paper bills 
are not money, but only representatives of money. Those who 
are addicted to this theory are in the habit of designating 
coins made of the precious metals as “primary money,” “re¬ 
demption money” or “standard money;” while paper bills are 
called “secondary money,” or “credit money,” and are worth¬ 
less except as they may be redeemed in “primary money.” The 
specie basis may be gold or silver or both. Since the world¬ 
wide demonetization of silver gold only is the basis in the lead¬ 
ing nations of the earth. 

The specie basis theory is open to the following weighty 
objections: 

1. It is contrary to the fundamental law of the United States 
—the Constitution. 

Judge Tiffany, in his work on Constitutional Law, ex¬ 
pounding the right of Congress “to coin money and regulate 
the value thereof,” says: 

“The authority which coins or stamps itself upon the arti¬ 
cle can select what substance it may deem suitable to receive 
the stamp and pass as money; and it can affix what value it 
deems proper, independent of the intrinsic value of the sub¬ 
stance upon which it is affixed.” 

This learned opinion, which annihilates all necessary dis¬ 
tinction between “primary” and “secondary” money, was fol¬ 
lowed by the United States Supreme Court in the celebrated 
Greenback cases, and hence has all the authority of law. (See 
12 Wallace’s Reports, p. 519.) 

2. The specie basis theory is contrary to the facts of his¬ 
tory, some of which will be recited in succeeding pages. Many 
instances are recorded in which paper and other material have 
been successfully used as money where no redemption in coin 
was promised or possible. 

3. The specie basis theory postulates that a certain amount 
of “redemption money” will support or float a proportional 


448 


The Philosophy of Money. 

amount of “credit money.” As the specie increases the paper 
money may be safely increased; and as the specie decreases 
paper money must also be decreased—a philosophy that would 
lead to the absurd conclusion that when all specie disappears 
the people can have no money of any kind. Mr. R. H. Patter¬ 
son, a distinguished English economist, truly puts the paradox 
as follows: 

“The gospel of monetary science now is, that when a coun¬ 
try does not want paper money, it ought to have a great supply 
of it; and when it does require paper money it shall have none. 
When a country has enough of specie it ought to double its 
currency by issuing an equal amount of bank notes; and when 
there is no specie there should likewise be no notes. Is it nec¬ 
essary to discuss such a theory? In order to be rejected it 
needs only to be stated; in order to be rejected it only needs to 
be understood. It is a theoretical monstrosity against which 
common sense revolts—a burlesque of reason which even the 
present generation will live to laugh at.” 

4. The specie basis is insufficient in volume to redeem, the 
credit money which is necessarily used in business. The entire 
circulating medium of the United States is, approximately, six¬ 
teen hundred millions of dollars, of which about one-third is 
gold, one-third silver and one-third paper. Since silver was 
demonetized it is now only credit money; hence we have but 
one dollar of redemption money (gold) with which to redeem 
two of credit money, or, taking into consideration, as we should, 
the vast volume of checks, drafts and other credits which must 
finally be redeemed in gold, it is perfectly apparent that the 
United States has not one dollar of redemption money with 
which to redeem one hundred dollars of credit—and thus the 
whole theory of redemption becomes a mere figment incapable 
of practical realization. And what is true of the United States 
is true of all other countries. 

5. The specie basis is a breeder of panics. In times of pros¬ 
perity and confidence credits are safely increased to accommo¬ 
date the increasing volume of business; and the specie basis is 
sufficient merely because it is not put to the test, the people 
preferring paper money because of its superior convenience; 
but at such a time a pebble may start an avalanche. A start¬ 
ling failure occurs somewhere, creditors press for liquidation, 


449 


The Philosophy of Money. 

the banks are besieged, and, being unable to redeem their 
promises to pay gold, they suspend—and the panic is complete. 
Such is the recurrent history of finance in all civilized lands. 

Charles Sears, an eminent authority, says of the gold 
basis: 

“Within the last fifty years, say, a money crisis has come 
quite regularly every ten years. Something—any one of a 
dozen causes, few know what—sets gold to flowing out. Fifty 
millions withdrawn in a short time from its usual place of de¬ 
posit is quite sufficient to make the whole volume of coin dis¬ 
appear from ordinary circulation as completely as if it had 
never existed. The metallic basis is gone—slipped out; the 
pivot of the system is dislocated; somebody wanted it and took 
it, and the pyramid tumbles down, burying in its ruins three- 
fourths of a business generation.” 

To the same effect is the opinion of the famous American 
jurist, Judge Walker. He says: 

“The whole paper scheme is founded on the presumption 
that the holders of these bills will not generally ask for specie 
at the same time; and, therefore, the amount of specie kept in 
reserve bears but a small proportion to the notes in circulation. 
And this is the- great evil of the system. A general and simul¬ 
taneous demand for specie cannot possibly be met, and disas¬ 
ter must follow. To enforce a universal performance of these 
promises is to insure their being broken. Every sudden panic, 
therefore, must produce wide-spread calamity.”— Walker's 
American Law, p. 152. 

6. The specie basis affords a means by which greedy specula¬ 
tors work “a corner” in gold and thus extort large sums in 
profits which the people eventually have to pay. The laws and 
official rulings, for instance, which require the maintenance of 
a gold reserve in the Federal treasury and the payment of 
duties and interest on the public debt in gold, create a special 
and imperative demand for the yellow metal; and as the supply 
of that kind of money is almost entirely in the hands of a few 
great banking firms, the latter can, at their pleasure, extort 
such terms as they please when applied to for gold. An in¬ 
stance of the kind occurred on Feb. 8th, 1895. On that day, in 
order to maintain its gold reserve, the United States govern¬ 
ment purchased of M. Rothschild & Sons and J. P. Morgan & 
Co., bankers of London, 3,500,000 ounces of standard gold coin 
of the United States at the rate of $17.80441 per ounce, and 


450 


The Philosophy of Money. 

paid for it in United States four per cent, thirty-year coupon 
or registered bonds, interest payable quarterly. These bonds 
were taken by the British bankers at $1.04, and were sold by 
them within ten days at $1.18, by which the foreign gold ex¬ 
ploiters made a net profit of about eight million dollars—to be 
eventually paid by the people. 

7. The specie basis must inevitably become more and more 
insufficient with the lapse of time, and the disasters due to it in 
the past become more frequent and distressing. The popula¬ 
tion of the world is increasing, barbarous nations are becoming 
commercial, and commercial nations are extending their 
commerce with unexampled rapidity from year to year. 
With this increasing business must come a necessity 
for a corresponding increase in the medium of exchange— 
money. But no material increase of the precious metals is 
possible. On the contrary, as the mines successively become 
exhausted, or deeper and more difficult to work, it is clear that 
the annual supply of gold and silver must become increasingly 
insufficient to replace that which has been lost or consumed in 
the arts and sciences; and hence the difficulties of the specie 
basis will of necessity become more and more aggravated as 
time goes on. 

Considerations such as the foregoing have led to the rapid 
development of a new school of finance which, rejecting the 
specie basis as antiquated and no longer tenable, professes to 
find a sufficient guarantee for the stability of money in 

The Begal Tender Basis. 

President Grant said: 

“My own judgment is that a specie basis cannot be 
reached and maintained until our exports exclusive of gold pay 
for our imports, interest due abroad, and other specie obliga¬ 
tions, or so nearly as to leave an appreciable accumulation of 
the precious metals in the country from the product of our 
mines.”— Message , Dec. 1,1873. 

Plentiful experience has demonstrated that a paper money 
based upon the authority, faith and credit of the government 
and made by law a full legal tender for all debts will serve all 
the purposes of a staple circulating medium as effectually as 
gold itself. 


The Philosophy of Money. 451 

The effectiveness of legal-tender paper depends upon two 
circumstances: 

1. Government can by law compel the people to take it in 
satisfaction of private debts, by refusing to enforce contracts 
payable in any other kind of money. 

2. The government may receive such legal-tender paper 
in satisfaction of all kinds of taxes and duties, thus giving such 
money a positive value equal to gold. 

The U. S. Supreme Court, in the celebrated Greenback 
cases, says: 

“Making these notes legal tender gave them new uses (or 
functions), and it requires no argument to prove the value of 
things as in proportion to the uses to which they may be ap¬ 
plied .”—12 Wallace Reports, p. 519. 

Benjamin Franklin, defending the Pennsylvania colonial 
paper money before a committee of the English Parliament, in 
1764, said: 

“On the whole no method has hitherto been found to 
establish a medium of trade, in lieu of coin, equal in all its 
advantages to bills of credit founded on sufficient taxes for dis¬ 
charging it at the end of the time, and in the meantime made 
a general legal tender.” 

Thomas Jefferson, in his letter to Mr. Epps, said of govern¬ 
ment paper money: 

“It is the only resource which can never fail them, and it is 
an abundant one for every necessary purpose. Treasury bills, 
bottomed on taxes, bearing or not bearing interest as may be 
found necessary, thrown into circulation, will take the place of 
so much gold or silver.” 

President Jackson, in his message, 1829, said: 

“ I submit to the wisdom of the legislature whether a 
national one [currency] founded on the credit of the government 
and its resources might not be devised.” 

John C. Calhoun, in a speech in the U. S. Senate Dec. 18th, 
1837, said: 

“ It appears to me, after bestowing the best reflection I can 
give the subject, that no convertible paper—that no paper that 
rests upon a promise to pay—is suitable for a currency. It is 
the form of credit paper in transactions between men, but not 
for a standard of value to perform exchanges generally, which 
constitutes the appropriate functions of money or currency. 
No one can doubt but that the credit of the government is bet- 


452 


The Philosophy of Money. 

ter than that of any bank—more staple and safe. I now under¬ 
take to affirm, and without the least fear that I can be 
answered, that paper money issued by the government, to re¬ 
ceive it for all dues, would form a perfect circulation which 
would not be abused by the government; that it would be 
uniform with the metals themselves.” 

Legal-tender paper money is usually issued in times of 
war when gold and silver are hoarded or exported from the 
country; and, as a consequence, such legal tender is put to the 
severest possible tests, those of an imperilled government, dis¬ 
turbed industry and impeded foreign trade; nevertheless, his¬ 
tory abounds with instances to prove the entire sufficiency of 
this kind of money. 

In 1156 the Republic of Venice established a system of 
paper credits which served as the principal circulating medium 
of that country until 1797. This money was always at par and 
frequently at a premium. In 1770 the Russian government 
issued its own notes, which sustained the government through 
two wars and commanded a premium over coin. In 1797 to 
1823 England issued $225,000,000 full legal-tender paper with 
which to carry on war against Napoleon. In his “Political 
Economy,” John S. Mill says of these notes: “After they were 
made a legal tender they never depreciated a particle.” 

During the colonial period of American history several of 
the colonies issued and successfully maintained legal-tender 
paper money. One instance is illustrative of them all. In 1739 
Pennsylvania issued $400,000 in legal-tender paper not redeem¬ 
able in coin, but receivable for taxes, which was loaned directly 
to the people on security of land and plate. This money con¬ 
tinued in circulation until it was prohibited by the British 
government in 1775. Commenting on the success of this sys¬ 
tem, Dr. Franklin said: “Between the years 1740 and 1775, 
while abundance reigned in Pennsylvania and there was peace 
in all her borders, a more happy and prosperous population 
could not, perhaps, be found on this globe.” 

During the Franco-German war France issued an enor¬ 
mous volume of legal-tender paper money, of which Victor 
Bonnet, the eminent French economist, says: “In the midst of 
the greatest calamities that ever befell a nation, with an enor- 


453 


The Philosophy of Money. 

mous ransom to pay a foreign nation, and with great domestic 
losses to repair, a credit circulation was maintained four times 
as large at its base without depreciation. This circulation 
reached $600,000,000.” 

During the war of the rebellion in the United States 
1861-5) the government issued a volume of legal-tender “green¬ 
backs” which on July 1st, 1865, was outstanding to the amount 
of $432,687,966. 

The first $60,000,000 of this paper money, issued under 
authority of the acts of July 17 and August 5th, 1861, and 
February 12th, 1862, called “demand notes,” was made a full 
legal tender for all debts public and private. This issue never 
fell below and often was above par as compared with gold. In 
a speech delivered in the U. S. Senate July 4th, 1862, Hon. John 
Sherman said of these “demand notes 

“ The notes are now held and hoarded. The first issue of 
$60,000,000 were issued with the right of being converted into 
6 per cent, twenty-year bonds and with the privilege of being 
paid for duties in customs. They are now far above par and 
hoarded.” 

In Schucker’s Life of Salmon P. Chase, p. 225, the author 
says: 

“The demand notes, being receivable for customs the same 
as coin, kept pace with the advance in the price of coin.” 

Ail of the greenbacks except the first $60,000,000 were pur¬ 
posely depreciated by the “exception clause;” that is, they were 
made a legal tender for all debts, public and private, except 
duties on imports and interest on the public debt , which 
latter were required to be paid in coin. This exception clause 
created a special demand for coin, and as a consequence metal¬ 
lic money rose to a great premium, at one time (July, 1864) be¬ 
ing at a premium of $2.85 in greenbacks to $1 in coin. That 
these greenbacks were purposely depreciated stands upon the 
evidence of Hon. John Sherman, who in a report as chairman of 
the Senate Finance Committee, made on the 12th of November, 
1867, said: “But it was found that with such a restriction 
upon the notes the bonds could not be negotiated, and it be- 


454 


The Philosophy of Money. 

came necessary to depreciate the notes in order to make a mar¬ 
ket for the bonds.” 

Speaking of the amendment by which the “exception 
clause” was passed, Hon. Thaddeus Stevens said in a speech 
delivered in the House, February 20th, 1862: 

“It has all the bad qualities that its enemies charged in 
the original bill and none of its benefits. It now creates 
money and by its very terms declares it a depre¬ 
ciated currency. It makes two classes of money—one for 
the banks and brokers, and another for the people. It dis¬ 
criminates between the rights of different classes of creditors, 
allowing the rich capitalists to demand gold, and compelling 
the ordinary lender of money on individual security to receive 

notes which the government had purposely discredited. 

But now comes the main clause. All classes of people shall 
take these notes at par for every article of trade or contract 
unless they have money enough to buy United States bonds, 
and then they shall be paid in gold. Who is that favored class? 
The banks and brokers, and nobody else.” 

This conspiracy of the lawmakers, by which the soldier in 
the field was paid in depreciated greenbacks while the Wall 
Street usurer received gold, did not deprive the paper money 
of its splendid functions. While coin rose to a great premium, 
owing to the special use made of it in payment of customs and 
interest on the public debt, the legal-tender money carried on 
the great war and conducted the business of the most prolific 
and prosperous epoch in the history of the United States. 

As a matter of fact the greenbacks, discredited by legis¬ 
lation as they were, did not depreciate in comparison with com¬ 
modities, but gold appreciated owing to the special demand 
created for it by law. The people never lost confidence in the 
government paper money, even in the darkest hours of the 
panic of 1873, as is shown by the language of President Grant. 
He said: 

“The experience of the present panic has proven that the 
currency of the country, based, as it is, upon the credit of the 
country, is the best that ever has been devised. Usually in 
times of such trials, currency has become worthless or so much 
depreciated in value as to inflate the values of all necessaries 
of life as compared with currency. Every one holding it has 
been anxious to dispose of it on any terms. Now we witness 



455 


The Philosophy of Money. 

the reverse. Holders of currency hoard it as they did gold in 
former experiences of like nature.”— Message, Dec. 1 , 1873. 

The Functions of Money. 

The functions or uses of money are three-fold: 

It is a measure of value. 

It is a medium of exchange. 

It is a means of storing wealth. 

As a measure of value money determines in what propor¬ 
tion commodities and services shall be interchanged. The 
yardstick measures the quantity of fabrics; but some fabrics 
are more valuable than others. A bolt of silk, for instance, is 
more valuable than a bolt of muslin—a difference which the 
yardstick, alone, cannot indicate; it merely measures quantities, 
not values. Here the money measure becomes necessary. The 
abstract unit which we call a dollar measures the values of 
both silk and muslin and determines how many yards of mus¬ 
lin should be exchanged for a yard of silk. 

Money is a medium of exchange. Smith has a horse and 
buggy which he wishes to exchange for a piano belonging to 
Brown. Brown is willing to part with the piano, but does not 
want a horse and buggy; he does want, however, a gold watch. 
Jones has such a watch, but wants to dispose of it for clothing. 
Wilson has clothing, but he wants coal. For these four parties 
to find out each other’s wants and effect an exchange of actual 
commodities and adjust the difference in value between the 
articles would involve time and labor and make so many diffi¬ 
culties that the transactions would be greatly delayed, if not 
defeated. Here money performs its beneficent offices as a me¬ 
dium of exchange. Smith sells his horse and buggy for money 
and with it purchases Brown’s piano. Brown buys the watch 
he wants, and thus money goes from hand to hand, affecting in¬ 
numerable exchanges, not only in the small neighborhood, but 
in great commercial circles, thereby bringing the antipodes 
together and enabling them to supply each other’s wants with 
the least possible loss of time and labor. 

Money is, also, a means of storing wealth. Jackson has 
a valuable farm, but is getting too old or infirm in health to 


456 


The Philosophy of Money. 

work it. He might exchange it for a, great quantity of food, 
clothing, and other necessaries sufficient to last him the re¬ 
mainder of his life; but these articles could not safely be stored 
so as to preserve them for future years, and some representa¬ 
tive, that can be stored, must be found. Money is that repre¬ 
sentative. Jackson sells his farm for money, and with the 
money purchases from time to time the necessaries required. 

From a brief study of these three great functions per¬ 
formed by money may be readily determined what should be 
the characteristics of a perfect currency, one that would most 
effectually and justly serve mankind. 

As a measure of values and as a means of storing wealth 
it is clear that money ought to be stable, that is, it should as 
nearly as possible have the same purchasing power from year 
to year and in all sections of the country; for when money 
fluctuates in purchasing power it is obvious that some men 
will gain and some will lose without any merit or fault upon 
their part, but simply in consequence of the fluctuations in the 
value of money. This is particularly true in case of debt, for 
if a debt be contracted when money is cheap, and paid when 
money is dear, the debtor will evidently lose by the change, 
and if the circumstances be reversed the creditor will lose. 

To secure such stability or uniformity of purchasing power 
no measure or method is so effectual as for the government to 
make all its money a full legal tender for all debts public and 
private. 

As a medium of exchange the volume or quantity of money 
in circulation should be sufficiently large to accomplish the 
transaction of business without waste or delay. In estimating 
the necessary volume it is proper to take into consideration the 
numbers of population, the magnitude of business transacted, 
and since a nimble dollar will perform the work of several slow 
ones, the “effectiveness” or rapidity with which money circu¬ 
lates; and since population and business are, upon the whole, 
constantly increasing, and the rapidity of circulation (until 
some swifter method of locomotion be discovered) remains un¬ 
altered, the volume of money, clearly, ought to be increased 
from year to year. Few who have not patiently studied the 


457 


The Philosophy of Money . 

problems of finance understand the mighty effects of un expan¬ 
sion or contraction of the money volume upon, not only the 
material, but the moral well-being of mankind. The very 
heart of the complex money question, the center of all its 
divergent issues, is the question of 

The Volume of Money. 

The volume or quantity of money in circulation is always 
hard to determine, principally because banks, brokers and their 
allies in official and journalistic positions are generally inter¬ 
ested in concealing or misstating the facts on purpose to mis¬ 
lead the public; so that, not infrequently, a period of financial 
disaster steals upon the people unaware and they are compelled 
to endure all the miseries of such an event without being able 
to detect the cause or apply the remedy. In such circum¬ 
stances the masses may dimly perceive that they are being 
robbed, yet, unable to detect the means of their spoliation, they 
attribute it to every cause but the real one, and thus the 
spoliators are enabled to repeat their robbery again and again, 
undetected by any save a few whose complaints are regarded 
as the extravagances of uninformed or fanatic minds. 

To fully comprehend how the exploiters of money may en¬ 
rich themselves and impoverish others by merely manipulating 
the currency it is necessary to understand the primary fact 
that an increasing volume of money brings rising prices and 
business activity, while a diminishing volume of money 
causes falling prices and business stagnation: Upon this propo¬ 
sition the following authorities are cited: 

David Hume, the English historian, in his essay on 
“Money,” says: 

“We find that in every kingdom into which money begins 
to flow in greater abundance than formerly everything takes a 
new face; labor and industry gain life, the merchants become 
more enterprising, the manufacturers more diligent and skill¬ 
ful, and the farmer follows his plow with greater attention and 
alacrity. The good policy of the government consists of keep¬ 
ing it, if possible, still increasing as long as there is an unde¬ 
veloped resource or room for a new immigrant, because by that 
means there is kept alive a spirit of industry in the nation 
which increases the stock of labor, in which consists all real 


458 


The Philosophy of Money. 

power and riches. A nation whose money decreases is actually 
weaker and more miserable than other nations which possess 
less money but are on the increasing hand.”— Essays and 
Treatises , vol. I, p. 283. 

Henri Cernuschi, an ex-banker of Paris, and recognized as, 
perhaps, the most eminent of the French writers on finance, 
says: 

“The value of money depends upon its quantity. It is the 
same with gold as with greenbacks. If the stock in circulation 
is augmented the purchasing power of every greenback is dimin¬ 
ished; and so with gold and silver. The purchasing power is 
always in relation to the quantity of the money.”— Nomisma , 
p. 15. 

“That commodities would rise and fall in price in propor¬ 
tion to the increase or diminution of money I assume as a fact 
that is incontrovertible. That such would be the case the 
most celebrated writers on political economy are agreed.”— 
Ricardo , Political Economy. 

“If the whole money in circulation was doubled prices 
would double. If it was only increased one-fourth, prices 
would rise one-fourth. The very same effect would be pro¬ 
duced on prices if we suppose the goods (the uses for money) 
diminished instead of the money increased; and the contrary 
effect if the goods were increased or the money diminished. So 
that the value of money, all other things remaining the same, 
varies inversely as its quantity; every increase in quantity 
lowering its value and every diminution raising it in a ratio 
exactly equivalent.”— J. S. Mill, Principles of Political 
Economy. 

Wm. H. Crawford, Secretary of the Treasury, in his report, 
Feb., 1820, says: 

“ All intelligent writers on currency agree that when it 
(money) is decreasing in amount poverty and misery must 
prevail.” 

By joint resolution of the United States Congress Aug. 
15th, 1876, a “United States Monetary Commission” was ap¬ 
pointed to inquire into the prevailing “ hard times.” It con¬ 
sisted of Senators John P. Jones, Lewis V. Bogy and Geo. S. 
Boutwell,and Congressmen Randall L. Gibson, George Willard 
and Richard P. Bland; to whom were added Hon. Wm. S. 
Groesbeck of Ohio, Prof. Francis Bowen of Massachusetts, and 
Geo. M. Weston of Maine; the three latter acting as secre¬ 
taries of the commission. On March 2d, 1877, the commission 


459 


The Philosophy of Money. 

reported. The following extracts are taken from the report: 

“While the volume of money is decreasing, though very 
slowly, the value of each unit of money is increasing in a cor¬ 
responding ratio, and property and wages are decreasing. Those 
who have contracted to pay money find that it is constantly 
becoming more difficult to meet their engagements. The mar¬ 
gins of securities melt rapidly, and their confiscation by the 
creditor becomes only a question of time. All productive 
enterprises are discouraged and stagnate because the cost of 
producing commodities today will not be covered by the price 
obtainable for them tomorrow. Exchanges become sluggish 
because those who have money will not part with it for either 
property or service, for the obvious reason that money alone is 
increasing in value while everything else is decreasing in price. 
This results in the withdrawal of money from the channels of 
circulation and its deposit in great hoards where it can exert 
no influence on prices. Money in shrinking volume becomes 
the paramount object of commerce instead of the beneficent 
instrument. Instead of mobilizing industry, it poisons and 
dries up its life currents. It is the fruitful source of political 
and social disturbance. It foments strife between labor and 
other forms of capital while itself, hidden away, gorges on 
both. It rewards close-fisted lenders and filches from and 
bankrupts enterprising producers. An increasing value of 
money and falling prices have been and are more fruitful of 
human misery than war, pestilence or famine; they have 
wrought more injustice than all the bad laws ever enacted.”— 
Report of U. S. Monetary Commission , vol. I, p. 10 et seq. 

Pointing out how a contraction of the money volume in¬ 
creases the debt obligations of the past, R. H. Patterson, 
especially commended by Gladstone as one of the ablest ol 
English writers on finance, says: 

“And what is such a dearth of money and rise in the 
measure of value but an injustice to the many to the gain of 
the few—an unfair exaltation of the pow r er of the past over 
the present, an unfair and undesirable aggravation of the pov¬ 
erty of the poor and the wealth of the rich—a stereotyping of 
classes according to wealth, until they tend to become perma¬ 
nent ? We have seen how powerful and beneficial was the in¬ 
flux of the precious metals from the New World four centuries 
ago in breaking the social bondage which had settled over 
Europe during the long night of the Dark Ages, enabling that 
generation to escape from the heritage of the past and bound 
forward upon the new career then opening to mankind. Such 
times come from the hand of Providence, and with an exceed¬ 
ing rarity even in the long career of civilized mankind. But 


460 


The Philosophy of Money. 

at least let us avoid the opposite and never allow successive 
generations to be unfairly—nay, most unjustly, though it may 
not be so meant—handicapped, each in its own race, owing to 
a growing dearth and dearness of money .”—The New Golden 
Age , vol. II, p. 500. 

President Grant said: 

“To increase our exports sufficient money is required to 
keep all the industries of the country employed. Without this 
national as well as individual bankruptcy must ensue.”— 
Message , Dec. 1st, 1873. 

Hon. John Sherman, in a speech in the Senate, Jan. 27, 
1869, said in opposition to a bill to contract the currency by re¬ 
tiring the greenbacks: 

“It is not possible to take this voyage without the sorest 
distress. To every person except a capitalist out of debt, or a 
salaried officer, or annuitant, it is a period of loss, danger, lass¬ 
itude of trade, fall of wages, suspension of enterprise, bank¬ 
ruptcy and disaster. ... It means the ruin of all dealers 
whose debts are twice their business capital though one-third 
less than their actual property. It means the fall of all agri¬ 
cultural productions without any great reduction of taxes. 
When that day comes every man, as the sailor says, will be 
close-reefed; all enterprise will be suspended, every bank will 
have contracted its currency to the lowest limit; and the debtor, 
compelled to meet in coin a debt contracted in currency, will 
find the coin hoarded in the treasury, no representative of coin 
in circulation, his property shrunk not only to the extent of 
the depreciation of the currency, but still more by the artificial 
scarcity made by the holders of gold. To attempt this task by 
a surprise upon our people, by arresting them in the midst of 
their lawful business and applying a new standard of value to 
their property without any reduction of their debts, or giving 
them an opportunity to compound with their creditors, or to 
distribute their losses, would be an act of folly without an ex¬ 
ample in evil in modern times .”—Congressional Globe, 1869, 
p. 629. 

In a speech in the United States Senate, March 17, 1874, 
General John A. Logan pointed out the cause of the panic of 
1873 as follows: 

“But, sir, that the panic was not due to the character of 
the currency is proved by the history of the panic itself. . . . 
No, sir, the panic was not attributable to the character of the 
currency, but to a money famine, and to nothing else. In the 
very midst of the panic, we saw the leading bankers and busi¬ 
ness men of New York pressing and urging the President and 


461 


The Philosophy of Money. 

the Secretary of the Treasury to let loose twenty or twenty-five 
millions more of the same paper for their relief—the very 
same men who today denounce it as a disgrace to our govern¬ 
ment. It was good enough for them when they were in trouble. 

“Why is it that representatives forget the interests of their 
own section and stand up here as the advocates of the gold- 
brokers and money-lenders and sharks, the same class of men 
whose tables Christ turned over, and whom he lashed out of 
the temple at Jerusalem? . . . Carry out the theory of 

the contractionists and what must be the inevitable result? 
Every enterprise and industry must be dwarfed in like propor¬ 
tion. The busy hum of the spindle will cease its sound in many 
a mill which now gives employment to hundreds of active 
hands and supplies the comforts of life to many a happy home. 
The bright blaze of many an iron foundry which gives life and 
cheerfulness to the grand scenery along the streams of Penn¬ 
sylvania will cease to gild the night with its rays. And the 
same industry in my own State, and that of the Senator from 
Missouri, which has been so rapidly increasing of late, will be 
crippled, and hundreds who now find employment there will be 
compelled to seek a home elsewhere for want of work. The 
undeveloped resources of the South and West, which we have 
just begun to appreciate, will rest in abeyance until a wiser 
policy shall bring them into use. . . . Why, sir, the 

people were never freer from debt in proportion to the business 
done than in 1865, at the close of the war, when Mr. McCulloch 
began his system of contraction, and at the very time when 
eleven millions more people were to be supplied. Was it to be 
supposed that the activity and energy which the adequate 
supply of money had put in operation, and which was giving 
prosperity and happiness to the country, would suddenly dwarf 
itself to suit financial notions without a struggle? The inevit- 
itable result was an expedient to meet the consequent want, 
and credit was expanded. At the very moment above all others 
when adequate supply was needed, the opposite course was 
adopted; and right here lies the true cause of the late panic, 
which resulted from a money famine and not from an excessive 
supply. . . . Sir, turn this matter as we will, and look at 

it from any side whatever, and it does present the appearance 
of being a stupendous scheme of the money-holders to seize the 
opportunity of placing under their control the vast industries 
of the nation. Therefore I warn Senators against pushing too 
far the great conflict now going on between capital and labor. 
. . . Capital rests upon labor; but when it attempts to 

press too heavily on that which supports it in a free republic, 
the slumbering volcano, whose mutterings are beginning al¬ 
ready to be heard, will burst forth with a fury that no legisla¬ 
tion will quell.” 


462 


The Philosophy of Money. 

From the foregoing, which is but a small fragment of the 
immense literature in harmony with the opinions cited, the 
following conclusions may be digested: 

1. A diminished volume of money always causes a propor¬ 
tional diminution in the price of labor and commodities—or, to 
express it otherwise, money becomes dear and everything else 
cheap. 

2. This redounds to the advantage of the capitalistic 
class, who are thereby enabled to exact more for their money 
in services and commodities, to purchase all kinds of stocks 
and properties at diminished rates, and to foreclose mortgages 
and collect other forms of debts under such conditions as to 
make “hard times” a harvest for the creditor class. 

3. The debtor class is compelled not only to yield more 
services and commodities for the money which it receives or 
has previously received, but suffers the further hardship of 
languishing business and enforced idleness or diminished w T ages; 
and it should be remembered that every producer is a debtor, 
even though he has no specific obligations outstanding; for he 
will have to aid those who have such obligations by receiving 
less prices and wages and by paying relatively increased taxes, 
salaries, rents and profits to those members of the debtor class 
who are immediately above him in the social scale, and who 
will seek to save themselves by shifting the burden of their 
obligations onto those who are below. 




“ III fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 

Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 
Princes and lords may flourish and may fade; 

A breath can make them, as a breath has made; 
But an honest peasantry, a country’s pride, 

When once destroyed, can never be supplied.” 

— Goldsmith. 


¥ 


“Wealth is necessary; let us not disclaim against it; every 
nation needs it to attain the highest achievements in civil¬ 
ization. But it is a blessing only as a servant and is destruc¬ 
tive as a master .”—John P. Altgeld. 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 

I N the foregoing pages are outlined the fundamental principles of 
the science of money—a science which until recently was to the 
masses mysterious and incomprehensible, but which, divested of 
technical terms and high-sounding phrases, now invites the careful 
study of the thoughtful. That phase of the money question which 
presents itself for immediate settlement is the proposition to reopen 
the mints of the United States to the free and unlimited coinage of 
silver just as the mints are now open to the free and unlimited 
coinage of gold. This proposition has come to be the great issue 
between the leading political parties in the United States to-day. 
It overshadows all other issues, and the force of events is uncon¬ 
trollably forcing the silver question forward to immediate settlement. 
The American people will have to settle it, and each voter should 
now study it in all its phases, and make up his own mind. The case 
is thus fairly and impartially set forth in the Daily News Almanac 
for 1896 : 

The discussion of the financial question that has been going on 
in the United States with increasing vigor since 1875 has developed 
four different sets of opinions regarding the use of silver as a money 
metal in this country. The advocates of these systems are known 
as the gold monometallists, who believe in a single gold standard for 
all money of full legal-tender power ; the 16 to 1 bimetallists, who 
advocate the gratuitous and unlimited coinage of silver at a ratio of 
16 parts of silver to one of gold, independently of the rest of the 
world ; the international bimetallists, who believe in taking such a 
step only in concert and upon the joint agreement of the chief com¬ 
mercial nations of Europe ; and the experimental bimetallists, who 
advocate the coinage of a limited amount of silver annually, at the 
present ratio, independently of other nations, to test the ability or 
power of the United States to maintain such independent position. 

The attempt will be made in the following paragraphs to give 
briefly the relative claims of these different factions. 

It is necessary to define some of the terms constantly in use with 
more than ordinary precision, on account of the various construc¬ 
tions now given them. For instance, the phrase “free coinage” 
has a well-known technical meaning and is so used very generally by 
many of the standard financial authorities. In speaking of the 
coinage system of France, from 1803 to 1874, it is always referred 
to as a “free-coinage ” system, yet on its establishment there was a 
mint charge of 3 francs for each kilogram of silver and 9 francs for 

463 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 


each kilogram of gold. This was reduced by subsequent legisla¬ 
tion, but the coinage was never gratuitous, although always unlim¬ 
ited in amount. We also hear constant allusion to the “free 
coinage ” of silver in India, yet it is a well-known fact that a 2 per 
cent, charge for coinage was made until the legislation against silver 
of June 26, 1893. We always refer to the period in our own 
history from 1853 to 1873 as a “free-coinage ” era, yet it is known 
that there was a charge of one-half of 1 per cent, for coining either 
gold or silver during that entire time. Thus, to avoid ambiguity, 
we will not use the term “free coinage,” as, by some freak in the 
play of words, it has lately been generally understood to mean the 
gratuitous coinage of metal into full legal-tender money. Coinage 
can be unlimited in amount, or technically “free,” with or without 
a mint charge for converting metal of the proper fineness into coins, 
so that, technically speaking, “free coinage” has come to have 
precisely the same meaning as unlimited coinage. Misunderstand¬ 
ings can, however, be avoided and one can speak with precision by 
using the phrase “gratuitous and unlimited coinage” instead of 
“free coinage.” Thus we have the gratuitous and unlimited coin¬ 
age of gold in this country at present, while silver is coined only on 
government account; that is, the government purchases the silver 
bullion at the market price and bears the expense of its coinage. 

There are also undefinable shades of differences in the meaning 
of the terms “ gold monometallism ” and “bimetallism.” But for 
general purposes gold monometallism may be defined as a system 
under which gold is declared, by statute law, to be the sole unit of 
value, or standard, for absolutely full legal-tender coin. This is the 
system that was established in this country in 1873, when the law 
was enacted that provided that the gold dollar “shall be the 
unit of value.” This phrase still stands unrepealed. However, in 
1878 a law was enacted providing that silver dollars “shall be a 
legal tender for all debts and dues, public and private, except where 
otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract.” This phrase still 
stands in our statute. Hence it is left to the option of a creditor, 
under the provisions of the law of 1878, to make his contracts, or 
debts, payable in gold alone, and he can in this way do business on 
the gold monometallic system. If the creditor does not thus limit 
his contracts he is liable to receive silver dollars for the payment of 
a debt which he might desire to have paid in gold. Thus, practi¬ 
cally, the country is, to a great extent, under the gold monometallic 
system. The government admits that when an individual owes it a 
coin debt he may, as the law distinctly permits, pay this obligation 
either in silver or gold, as may best suit him. This is the bimetallic 
system at least in one direction, and has been named “ limping 
bimetallism.” But when the government owes a coin obligation to 
an individual it does not take advantage of this option which the 

464 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 


statute law grants, but has, ever since 1878, paid all coin obligations 
in the kind of coin demanded by the creditor. The government has 
been liberal and generous toward its coin creditors, and they, by 
choosing gold, have given the government the opportunity to throw 
the weight of its powerful influence toward gold monometallism. 

“Bimetallism” means the equal treatment, so far as coinage is 
concerned, of the two metals, and its advocates insist that if there is 
the gratuitous coinage of one metal the other should also be coined 
gratuitously; that if there is the unlimited coinage of the one the 
other should have the same right, and that coins of both metals 
should be “lawful tender in all payments whatsoever.” Bimetallists 
generally (but not universally) hold that the coinage ratio of the 
United States of 15.988 of silver to I of gold is approximately 
fair and wise, without regard to the present wide divergence in their 
commercial value from this ratio. 

As both the gold monometallists and bimetallists claim to be 
actuated by the highest sense of honor, and claim that they desire 
honest, sound money, these claims should be allowed until dis¬ 
proved. Each side claims to have the same earnest desire to have 
our full legal-tender money maintain the greatest possible stability 
in its purchasing power from generation to generation. They each 
acknowledge the momentous importance of the full legal-tender 
quality of money not only as a medium of exchange but as a 
measure in the payment of debts often deferred for a long period of 
years. 

Gold monometallists claim that gold has this desired requisite— 
that is, the greatest stability or fixedness in its purchasing power. 
They show that from the earliest historic records gold has always 
been more highly prized than silver. Going back for at least two 
hundred years preceding 1873, they cite the undisputed record that 
an ounce of gold could always be exchanged for about fifteen and a 
half ounces of silver, and for this reason they say that gold has 
always had the preference in the commercial world in large monetary 
transactions. They declare that the activity of the commercial 
world and the volume of business have so greatly increased in 
modern times that it is now unwise to contend against this marked 
preference for gold. By reference to carefully prepared statistics, 
accepted as reliable by both sides, it is shown that there has been a 
heavy decline in the general prices of all commodities since about 
1873, measured by gold. The gold monometallists claim that this 
decline can be logically and wholly accounted for by the progress in 
the arts and sciences and by the increased production of all com¬ 
modities without a correspondingly increased demand. In short, 
they declare that there has been no appreciation of gold since 1873 
when measured either by average wages or by a fair remuneration 
for the products of labor. They claim that there is no scarcity of 

4G5 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 


gold, citing the statistics accepted by both sides; that the world’s 
output of gold for forty-eight years since its discovery in 1848 in 
California has been about twice as great as it was in the long period 
between the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 and 1848. 
They show that the world’s output of gold was about $26,000,000 
greater in 1894 than in 1853, which was the most prolific year in the 
joint gold production of California and Australia. They maintain 
that not only is the world’s output of gold constantly increasing, but 
that, by the modern and more extensive use of bank clearing-house 
checks, drafts, telegraphic orders and other devices used as substi¬ 
tutes for money, the gold which is now used as money can do a far 
greater duty than formerly. 

On the other hand, bimetallists claim that by the joint and con¬ 
current use of gold and silver for absolute full legal-tender money 
(at about the coinage ratio established by the United States) we can 
secure a far more stable or steadier measure of valuation than by the 
use of gold alone. They admit the greater exchangeable value of 
gold as compared with silver previous to 1873, but claim that this 
was always equalized by the coinage ratio generally accepted before 
the demonetization of silver. They admit the commercial world’s 
preference for gold, on account of the greater ease in transporting it, 
but claim that the modern facilities of transportation modify this 
advantage, since the cost of transporting the precious metals is 
usually based upon their value and not upon their weight. The use 
of paper representatives of money, redeemable in coin, removes, 
they say, nearly every objection based only on weight. They show 
that while a single silver dollar may be large and cumbersome, 
which are objections to its use, yet the smallness of the gold dollar 
makes it far more undesirable for a circulating coin. They claim 
that the modern increased preference for gold has been brought about 
wholly by the extended legislation depriving silver of its full legal- 
tender function, and claim that, as hostile legislation has encour¬ 
aged this modern preference for gold, statute law favorable to 
silver can destroy it. By reference to carefully prepared statistics, 
accepted by both sides, bimetallists show that from 1848 to 1872, 
although the world’s joint output of gold and silver was very large 
as compared with any previous period in the world’s history, the 
average prices of commodities advanced, and although rapid strides 
were then made in the arts and sciences and in the ease of produc¬ 
tion and of transportation and also in the use of paper representa¬ 
tives of money, that still the prodigious progress of commercial 
enterprises absorbed all the metallic money in sight by encouraging 
a healthy rise in prices without any inconvenience or danger and 
with but little injustice. They claim that the decline in general 
prices and the world-wide commercial distress since 1873 dates from 
about that period, which is marked by the efforts of so many of 

466 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 


the leading nations of the world in demonetizing silver, thus pre¬ 
venting it from performing its customary function as an absolute full 
legal-tender money metal. They point out that silver then consti¬ 
tuted about one-half of the full legal-tender money of the world, 
and that its partial dethronement from doing this duty necessarily 
increased the importance and purchasing power of gold. They 
claim that the world’s increased output of gold does not make 
amends for the crippled service that silver is now performing. 
Bimetallists claim that there is a world-wide demand for an increase 
in the price of labor and the products of labor; or, what is the same 
thing, a general demand for an increase in prices, and say that the 
straightforward way to reach this desired result is to give silver fair 
play and an increased use as a full legal-tender metal. Bimetallists 
admit that increased knowledge in the sciences and arts has a con¬ 
stant tendency to increase the ease of both production and trans¬ 
portation, and thus to fairly reduce prices, but they strenuously 
deny that the abnormally low prices of the present times can be 
logically accounted for solely by such reasons. The bimetallists 
concede that if the monometallists could demonstrate that there has 
been no fall in prices that has acted disastrously since the demone¬ 
tization of silver in 1873, an d no extraordinary world-wide distress 
and bankruptcy since that time, they would then be able to refute 
the position held by the bimetallists, which is that there has been 
since 1873 an appreciation of the purchasing power of gold which 
has brought about this commercial distress. Hence, on this one 
issue, the greater stability of gold as the sole agent of valuation 
rather than of gold and silver together, the complex problem seems 
to swing as a gate on its hinges. 

Bimetallists do not admit the claim of their opponents that paper 
money of any kind, redeemable in gold alone, can ever do the duty 
of a credit money that has the world’s joint fund of both gold and 
silver back of it for redemption. They claim that the purchasing 
power of a paper money based on gold alone will be greater than 
a paper money based on both metals ; hence prices measured by the 
gold paper will be lower than those measured by paper redeemable 
in either metal at the option of the party who issues it. They con¬ 
tend that there is not gold enough in the world to do now the double 
duty of both silver and gold. 

Gold monometallists claim that the world’s production of silver 
since 1873 has been so great as to justify the wisdom of the commer¬ 
cial world in discarding it from its former place as the equal mate 
for gold. They point to the record of its fall in twenty-two years to 
about one-half of its former price measured by gold. They point 
out the fact that notwithstanding this drop in the price of silver, 
measured by gold, the world’s output of silver continues to increase 
and that many of the mines are still being worked at a great profit. 

467 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 


They refer to statistics showing that the world’s output of silver is 
now about five times greater than it was in i860, while the gold pro¬ 
duction is not quite twice as great as it w r as in that year. They ask : 
What will be the output of silver providing it is again received as it 
was previous to 1873? 

Bimetallists claim that notwithstanding these facts in regard to the 
world’s output of these precious metals there has always been an 
irregularity in the world’s output of both gold and silver. They 
refer to the government statistics showing that for the first fifty years 
of this century the world’s output of gold was 100 cents to 178 cents 
of silver, and that for twenty-two years, from 1851 to 1872, includ¬ 
ing both, the world produced 251 cents’ worth of gold to 100 cents 
of silver, yet during this very wide fluctuation in the relative supply 
of these two metals there was no marked discrepancy between their 
commercial and coinage value. They point out the fact that they 
were then united by statute law and the mints of the world were 
generally open to the coinage of both. Bimetallists admit the great 
fall in the relative commercial value of silver compared to gold 
during the twenty years from 1873 to 1892, including both, but they 
claim that the relative overproduction of silver did not do the mis¬ 
chief, as they show by statistics, accepted by both sides, that the 
world’s output during these twenty years was only about 108 cents’ 
worth of silver to 100 cents’ worth of gold. All of these estimates 
are based on the United States coinage ratio of valuation. They 
claim that the breaking of the legal tie that bound gold and silver 
together was the sole cause of the relative fall in the value of silver, 
measured by gold, as this cannot be wholly accounted for by the 
difference in relative production of silver and gold as shown by the 
statistics of production. They point out the fact that the world’s 
output of gold has been about $444,000,000 greater than silver since 
we first established our mint in 1792. Bimetallists claim that the 
world needs and can utilize for money all the gold and silver that 
can probably be produced, even under the present increased produc¬ 
tion of both metals, and that such use would add greatly to the 
welfare of mankind. They claim that the foundation of the credit 
money of the world is now very far from being too broad or too firm, 
and that if made broader the business of the world could be Carried 
on with far more ease and safety than it is at present. 

Gold monometallists assert that having two standards at the same 
time is an impossibility ; that only one of them will be effective at 
any one time, and that the history of the attempt of the nation from 
1792 to 1873 to maintain the bimetallic system has proved its 
absurdity. They say further that gold is an unvarying standard, 
while silver is not ; in short, that we should not have two yards 
that vary in length. 

On the other hand, bimetallists claim that the analogy between 

468 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 

full legal-tender coin as a measure of value* and the yard as the 
standard of length is defective ; that a full legal-tender dollar has its 
weight, its fineness and its stamp fixed rigidly and precisely by 
statute law ; that in this respect, as a measure of value, whether 
made of either gold or silver, it is, for debt-paying purposes, as pre¬ 
cise and unvarying a measure as the standard yard at fixed temper¬ 
ature is a precise measure of length, and that both are thus made 
stable by statute law—the coins for liquidating debts, the yard for 
measuring lengths. 

Bimetallists claim that full legal-tender coin has another and a 
different function. This is its exchangeable value or its purchasing 
power. The stability or steadiness of this purchasing power is of 
the most vital importance, and they claim that this can be secured 
best by employing the world’s entire production of gold and silver 
for this purpose. They do not claim that even then this purchasing 
power would be unvarying, but simply that it would be less variable. 
They point out that, as the debts and business of the civilized world 
up to about 1873 were based on this joint use of all the gold and 
silver in sight, this attempt of gold monometallists to transfer this 
entire duty to gold alone has increased its purchasing power and 
has relatively diminished the purchasing power of silver. They 
claim that the demonetization of silver has destroyed the equilibrium 
in the purchasing power maintained between gold and silver which 
has existed fairly well for at least twenty centuries. They admit that 
a bimetallic system may seem like measuring the purchasing power 
of two coin dollars alternately by one, for a time, and then by the 
other; but they claim that, although one of them for a time may 
have a marked advantage for debt-paying over the other on account 
of its cheapness, yet, the use of the cheaper one being always allow¬ 
able by statute law, the constant tendency will be to advance the 
importance of and the demand for the cheaper one, and at the same 
time to decrease the dearer one, and that this will automatically 
tend to produce an equality and parity between the two. So far as 
silver is discarded, as an absolute full legal-tender coin, and gold 
alone is selected as the money metal, bimetallists claim that there 
will of necessity be an absorbing world-wide grasping for the gold of 
the world, and that gold will become dearer, or gain a greater 
purchasing power, than if the two metals were used together. 

Bimetallists admit that they cannot demonstrate with mathematical 
precision where a certain line should be drawn which marks a disas¬ 
trous fall in prices ; that is, they admit that falling prices, when 
produced by the ease of production or transportation, are generally 
beneficial to the people, but when produced by an abnormal increase 
in the purchasing power of full legal-tender coin, brought about by a 
reduction in the volume of the coin so used, then they claim that 
such a decline in price is not beneficial but is hurtful to the great 

469 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 


mass of the people. They willingly admit that such a fall in prices 
would be beneficial to the small and select class composed of those 
who have the most absolute command of money, and for this reason 
they protest on account of the injustice to the many who have small 
means at hand. Eminent political economists who are defenders of 
gold monometallism have written volumes tending to show that there 
has been no appreciation in the purchasing power of gold since 1873 
that cannot be logically accounted for by the scientific and mechan¬ 
ical progress of mankind ; while others, ranking equally high, but 
who believe in bimetallism, declare that this position is entirely 
untenable. Many bimetallists, while doubting the complex tables of 
some gold monometallic statisticians, as well as deductions there¬ 
from, refer the question to the common sense of the plain people, 
and if the purchasing power of gold has not been appreciated, they 
seriously ask if something unexplainable has not happened in our 
own country to produce the financial disturbances between 1873 
and 1893. 

Gold monometallists point to the immense coinage of silver in the 
United States since 1878. About 420,000,000 dollars have been 
coined and are now in use, either in circulation as coin or in paper 
representatives or held in reserve in the treasury. The highest 
official authorities say that we have not demonetized silver, and cite 
these facts as proof. They also point to the treasury certificates, 
issued for the purchase of silver bullion under the law of 1890, as a 
further proof of the fair utilization of silver. Bimetallists reply that 
although the government has coined or issued this silver and its 
representatives the government is the leading offender against 
bimetallism by showing the entire world that it has no confidence in 
the honesty or expediency of this use of silver, and that, as a nation, 
we hold ourselves ready to treat silver either as unfit for coinage for 
full legal-tender purposes by our refusal to utilize any part of it to 
liquidate the coin obligations held against the government should our 
creditors demand gold coin. They adduce the fact that bonds have 
been sold at a great sacrifice to procure gold coin, while we had a 
fair amount of coined silver, ready for use, and a large amount of 
uncoined bullion owned and controlled by the government in the 
treasury. 

Gold monometallists make a large number of general and specific 
charges against the gratuitous and unlimited coinage of silver. They 
claim that we would be deluged by the silver of the world ; that 
gold would go to a premium and leave the country ; that it would 
raise prices, while wages and salaries would be slow to advance, and 
that our civilization would gradually descend to the level of that of 
Mexico or China. 

Bimetallists, while they deny such charges, are equally profuse in 
prophetic utterances. They assert that there is only a very small 

470 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 


surplus of silver in the world which is not in such use to-day as to be 
more valuable than it would be if sent to the United States mint to 
be coined in case we had their proposed system of gratuitous and 
unlimited coinage. They claim that under this system no gold 
would leave us without being replaced by something equally valu¬ 
able. They say that unlimited coinage would raise prices and that 
wages and salaries would promptly advance. They profess to be 
willing and anxious to assume all the risks of our civilization being 
lowered by a return to bimetallism, and they urge that such a change 
would be the panacea for all our commercial and financial 
distresses. 

There is a large and influential class of people who claim to be 
anxious for future bimetallism providing they can obtain the consent 
and co-operation of enough other nations to secure a practically 
universal acceptance of the system. They, too, assert and regret 
the alleged evils of gold monometallism just as earnestly as the 
uncompromising bimetallists, but seem to be content to wait entirely 
on the actions of other nations. On this question, they say, we can¬ 
not and dare not ac.t as an independent nation with safety. 

In conclusion let us examine what seems to have been done since 
1873 and what a certain class of experimental bimetallists declare 
may be done with a little risk. Gold monometallists have been con¬ 
sistent, earnest and successful in casting discredit on the wisdom 
and expediency of the use of the present silver dollar ever since 
1878. Its coinage was stopped in 1873, and the full legal-tender 
power of the few that may have been in existence was destroyed in 
1874. Since the commencement of this coinage in 1878 there has 
been a constant open contest directed ostensibly against the gratui¬ 
tous and unlimited coinage of silver, with the victory always resting 
on the gold monometallic side. However, in the opinion of many 
bimetallists, the most important part of that victory has been gained 
not so much by checking the actual coinage of silver dollars as by 
the official discarding of them for use as full legal-tender coins. A 
large majority of bimetallists have concentrated their efforts in trying 
to obtain the gratuitous and unlimited coinage of silver, without 
laying much stress or importance on the fair treatment of such as 
have been coined. They make the gratuitous and unlimited coin¬ 
age of silver the first requisite, while demanding also the restoration 
of the full legal-tender power of silver, and then declare that to 
accept anything less than this triple demand is a base compromise of 
the principles of bimetallism. They say there is no acceptable 
middle ground. 

There is a respectable number of careful students of the situation 
who are fully committed against the principles of both gold mono¬ 
metallism and gratuitous and unlimited silver coinage, but who 
recognize that conditions are so modified as to require some changes 

471 


THE SILVER QUESTION. 


in our present system. They recognize the fact that the leading 
nations of the world are both grasping for gold and distrustful of 
silver. These pronounced enemies of gold monometallism ask for 
the prompt annulment by the United States of every phrase in our 
statute law making gold our sole standard. They demand the re¬ 
enactment of the old phrase of the law of 1792 that declared that 
gold or silver dollars “shall be a lawful tender in all payments 
whatsoever.” They demand that the execution of such a law shall 
be properly defended and carried out by suitable legislation in all 
contracts that may be made in future. They demand that all silver 
dollars actually owned by the government shall be used to protect 
our gold reserve against the demands of foreign nations. They 
demand that our mints shall be put to work to their full capacity, 
working overtime if necessary, and coin not less than 60,000,000 
silver dollars per annum out of the 178,000,000 dollars which are 
now held as bullion in the treasury vaults. They say : “ Let these 

things be done experimentally for a few years, and let us calmly 
await the logic of events, which is always stronger than argument.” 
These experimental bimetallists are not willing to wait until foreign 
nations agree to use silver, but, having perfect confidence in silver, 
they demand prompt and independent financial leadership- by the 
United States, expecting by this method to gain international co-oper¬ 
ation and thus see silver restored to its old position. They say we 
led the nations of the world to gold monometallism in 1873, without 
their consent or advice, and that we by the same leadership are able 
to pilot them out of this dangerous position. 

This scheme of these experimental bimetallists is unsparingly 
condemned by gold monometallists as full of danger. They assert if 
the government should attempt to do as the law distinctly permits— 
that is, pay out silver dollars to liquidate coin obligations when our 
creditors demand gold—that the credit of the nation would be 
ruined. They prophesy panics, bankruptcy and universal distress. 
They say as we have used gold for paying coin obligations since 
1834 that this custom has become stronger than written law. 


COINS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Authority for Coining and Changes in Weight 
and Fineness, Total Amount Coined, 
Legal-Tender Quality. 

Gold Coins. 

Double Eagles—Authorized to be coined, act of March 3, 1849 5 
weight, 516 grains ; fineness, .900. Total amount coined to June 30, 
1894, $1,200,980. Full legal tender. 

472 



corns op tiie united states. 


Eagles—Authorized April 2, 1792; weight, 270 grains; fineness, 
• 9 l ^ z A i weight changed, act of June 28, 1834, to 258 grains; fine¬ 
ness changed, act of June 28, 1834, to .899225 ; fineness changed, 
act of Jan. 18, 1837, to .900. Total amount coined to June 30, 
1894, $252,662,960. Full legal tender. 

Half-Eagles—Authorized April 2, 1792 ; weight, 135 grains; fine¬ 
ness, .9162/3 ; weight changed act of June 28, 1834, to 129 grains; 
fineness changed, act of June 28, 1834, to .899225 ; fineness 
changed act of Jan. 18, 1837, to .900. Total amount coined to June 
30, 1894, $208,820,815. Full legal tender. 

Quarter-Eagle—Authorized April 2, 1792; weight, 67.5 grains; 
fineness, .916% ; weight changed, act of June 28, 1834, to 64.5 
grains ; fineness changed, act of June 28, 1834, to .899225 ; fineness 
changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to .900. Total amount coined to 
June 30, 1894, $28,670,820. Full legal tender. 

Three-Dollar Piece—Authorized Feb. 21, 1853 ; weight, 77.4 
grains ; fineness, .900; coinage discontinued, act of Sept. 26, 1890. 
Total amount coined, $1,619,376. Full legal tender. 

One Dollar—Authorized March 3, 1849; weight, 25.8 grains; 
fineness, .900 ; coinage discontinued, act of Sept. 26, 1890. Total 
amount coined, $19,499,337* Full legal tender. 

Silver Coins. 

Dollar—Authorized April 2, 1792; weight, 416 grains; fineness, 
.892.4 ; weight changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to 412 y 2 grains ; fine¬ 
ness changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to .900; coinage discontinued, 
act of Feb. 12, 1873. Total amount coined to Feb. 12, 1873, 
$8,031,238. Coinage reauthorized, act of Feb. 28, 1878. Coinage 
discontinued after July 1, 1891, except for certain purposes, act 
July 14, 1890. Amount coined to Dec. 31, 1893, $427,364,446. 
Full legal tender except when otherwise provided in the contract. 

Trade Dollar—Authorized Feb. 12, 1873; weight, 420 grains; 
fineness, .900; legal tender limited to $5, act of June 22, 1874 
(rev. stat.) ; coinage limited to export demand and legal-tender 
quality repealed, joint resolution, July 22, 1876; coinage discon¬ 
tinued, ^ict Feb. 19, 1887. Total amount coined, $35,965,924. 

Half-Dollar—Authorized April 2, 1792 ; weight, 208 grains ; fine¬ 
ness, .892.4; weight changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to 2o6j( grains; 
fineness changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to .900 ; weight changed, act 
of Feb. 21, 1853, to 192 grains; weight changed, act of Feb. 12, 
1873, to 12 y z grams, or 192.9 grains. Total amount coined to June 
30, 1891, $130,512,383.50. Legal tender, $10. 

Columbian Half-Dollar—Authorized Aug. 5 > 1892 5 weight, 

192 .9 grains; fineness, .900. Total amount coined, $2,501,052.50. 
Legal tender, $10. 

Quarter Dollar—Authorized April 2, 1792; weight, 104 grains; 

473 


COINS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


fineness, .892.4; weight changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to 103 
grains; fineness changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to .900; weight 
changed, act of Feb. 21, 1853, to 96 grains ; weight changed, act of 
Feb. 12, 1873, to grams, or 96.45 grains. Total amount coined 
to June 30, 1894, $47,198,044. Legal tender, $10. 

Columbian Quarter-Dollar —Authorized March 3, 1893 ; weight, 
96.45 grains; fineness, .900. Total amount coined, $10,005.75. 
Legal tender, $10. 

Twenty-Cent Piece —Authorized March 3, 1875 5 weight, 5 

grams, or 77.16 grains; fineness, .900; coinage prohibited, act of 
May 2, 1878. Total amount coined, $271,000. 

Dime—Authorized April 2, 1792; weight, 41.6 grains; fineness, 
892.4; weight changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to 41 grains; fine¬ 
ness changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to .900 ; weight changed, act of 
Feb. 21, 1853, to 38.4 grains; weight changed, act of Feb. 12, 
1873, to 2 y z grams, or 38.58 grains. Total amount coined to June 
30, 1894, $28,480,117.20." Legal tender, $10. 

Half-Dime—Authorized April 2, 1792; weight, 20.8 grains; fine¬ 
ness, .892.4; weight changed, act of Jan. 18, 1837, to 20^ grains; 
fineness changed, act of Jan. 18, 1857, to .900 ; weight changed, act 
of Feb. 21, 1853, to 19.2 grains ; coinage discontinued, act of Feb. 
12, 1873. Total amount coined, $4,880,219.40. 

Three-Cent Piece —Authorized March 3, 1851 ; weight, 12 
grains; fineness, .750; weight changed, act of March 3, 1853, to 
11.52 grains; fineness changed, act of March 3, 1853, to .900 ; coin¬ 
age discontinued, act of Feb. 12, 1873. Total amount coined, 
$1,282,087.20. 

Minor Coins. 

Five-Cent (nickel) —Authorized May 16, 1866; weight, 77.16 
grains, composed of 75 per cent, copper and 25 per cent, nickel. 
Total amount coined to June 30, 1894, $13,432,430.95. Legal 
tender for $1, but reduced to 25 cents by act of Feb. 12, 1873. 

Three-Cent (nickel) —Authorized March 3, 1865 ; weight, 30 
grains, composed of 75 per cent, copper and 25 per cent, nickel. 
Total amount coined, $941,349.48. Legal tender for 60 <?ents, but 
reduced to 25 cents by act of Feb. 12, 1873. Coinage discontinued, 
act of Sept. 26, 1890. 

Two-Cent (bronze) —Authorized April 22, 1864; weight, 96 
grains, composed of 95 per cent, copper and 5 per cent, tin and zinc. 
Coinage discontinued, act of Feb. 12, 1873. Total amount coined, 
$912,020. 

Cent (copper) —Authorized April 2, 1792 ; weight, 264 grains ; 
weight changed, act of Jan. 14, 1793, to 208 grains; weight 
changed by proclamation of the president, Jan. 26, 1796, in con¬ 
formity with act of March 3, 1795, to 168 grains; coinage discon- 

474 


COINS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


tinued, act of Feb. 21, 1857. Total amount coined, $1,562,887.44. 

Cent (nickel) —Authorized Feb. 21, 1857 ; weight, 72 grains, com¬ 
posed of 88 per cent, copper and 12 per cent, nickel. Coinage 
discontinued, act of April 22, 1864. Total amount coined, $2,007,720, 

Cent (bronze) —Authorized April 22, 1864; weight, 48 grains, 
composed of 95 per cent, copper and 5 per cent, tin and zinc. 
Total amount coined to June 30, 1894, $7,351,783.35. Legal tender, 
25 cents. 

Half-Cent (copper) —Authorized April 2, 1792; weight, 132 
grains ; weight changed, act of Jan. 14, 1793, to 104 grains ; weight 
changed by proclamation of the president, Jan. 26, 1796, in con¬ 
formity with act of March 3, 1795, to 84 grains; coinage discon¬ 
tinued, act of Feb. 21, 1857. Total amount coined, $39,926.11. 


The universe is the property of every creature in it.— Emerson. 

You take my life, when you take the means by which I live. 
— Shakespeare. 

No man shall rule me with my consent ; I will rule over no man.— 
Win. Lloyd Garrison. 

Give a man power over my existence, and you give him power 
over my whole moral nature.— Alexander Hamilton. 

Of all successive shapes which society has taken, that most nearly 
approaches perfection in which the war of individual against indi¬ 
vidual is most strictly limited.— Professor Huxley. 

You are a stockholder in the government; will you vote for 
dividends or assessments? Bad Politics have made times bad. 
Good Politics can make them good.— Henry D. Lloyd. 

I affirm it as my conviction that class law, placing capital above 
labor in the structure of government, is more dangerous to the 
republic than was chattel slavery in the days of its haughtiest 
supremacy.— Abraham Lincoln. 

The concentration of so many branches of trade in the hands of a 
few individuals, so that a small number of very rich men have been 
able to lay upon the masses of the poor a yoke little better than 
slavery itself.— Pope Leo XIII. 

Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only the 
fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not first 
existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the 
higher consideration.— Abraham Lincoln. 

No reform, moral or intellectual, ever came from the upper class 
of society ; each and all came from the protest of martyr and victim. 
The emancipation of the working people must be achieved by the 
working people themselves.— Wendell Phillips. 

475 



u No alms I ask; give me my task/ 

Here are the arm, the leg, 

The strength, the sinews of a man, 

To work , and not to beg.” 

—Tom Hood (Lay of the Laborer ). 

CO-OPERATION. 

<%> 

TN the course of a series of lectures on Socialism and kindred 
* subjects recently delivered in St. Louis, the Rev. W. W. 
Boyd, of the Second Baptist Church of that city, presented 
the results of a careful investigation of the subject of Co¬ 
operation. The statistics of distributive co-operation in Great 
Britain make a most interesting exhibit. The English “whole¬ 
sale” annual business is now $50,000,000 a year. The total of 
the reporting co-operative stores is $250,000,000; the profits, 
in excess of interest, $25,000,000; the membership, 1,400,000. 
The total trade of co-operative stores in Great Britain from 
1861 to 1890, inclusive, was $2,743,436,440, and the profits in 
excess of interest, $233,059,495. 

In the United States the Puritan settlements early gave a 
practical training in the spirit of co-operation, and in the first 
industry, that of the fisheries, the form of co-operation followed 
which has continued, especially in Maine, to the present. 
Brook Farm, Hopedale and other associations in the decade of 
1840-50 were communistic as well as co-operative, and therein 
lay their weakness. The Workmen’s Protective Union, 1850, 
the Patrons of Industry (or the Grange) and similar organiza¬ 
tions, though co-operative, failed because they did not grasp 
the true principle of co-operation. Yet out of the experience? 
agitation and education of those forty years the principles of 
true co-operation are beginning to be understood and put in 
practice. 

The popular notion of a co-operative store has been for a 
few persons to subscribe a small capital, buy at the lowest 
wholesale prices a stock of goods and sell to the members 
at cost and perhaps on credit, thus cutting the prices of retail 
traders. The failure of so many so-called co-operative stores 

476 


477 


Co-operation. 

in this country is due to this total misconception of what co¬ 
operation is. The same thing occurred in England for half a 
century, until in 1844 the Rochdale weavers discovered the 
true principle that must lie at the basis of all successful co¬ 
operative enterprise—namely, the feeding of co-operation on 
its profits. The principal features of the Rochdale system, 
which has proved successful wherever adopted, are these: 
Each member of the co-operative society is limited to one vote 
in choosing directors to conduct the business. Only goods of 
standard quality and in constant demand are bought. All 
goods are sold for cash, no credit being given, at the regular 
retail prices. A record is kept of purchases, and the profits^ 
after deducting interest and a certain portion for the reserve 
funds, are divided quarterly, not on the shares, as in a joint 
stock company, but on the amount of purchases each has 
made. The dividend, or rebate, received by each purchaser is 
placed to his credit against further shares of the capital stock, 
or paid to him in cash, as he desires. Thus the savings are 
constantly invested in the business, and it is this feeding on 
profits that gives co-operation capital and stability. 

In co-operative production we find that cheese factories 
and creameries for the manufacture of butter are an estab¬ 
lished success. Of 150 creameries in New England, 80 per 
cent, are co-operative. In the Central and Western States one- 
fourth of the whole number are so. In the Northwestern and 
Middle States one-half of the cheese factories are co-operative. 
Sixty per cent, of the cheese made in factories in the United 
States is the product of co-operative effort. The significance 
of these statements is seen if we add that the dairy production 
of the United States is annually 610,000 tons, or about ono- 
third of the world’s product, and that our exports for 1889-92, 
inclusive, were 75,487,380 pounds of butter and 344,609,978 
pounds of cheese, a total value of more than $39,000,000. At 
least one-half of this value was the result of co-operation. 

Co-operative manufacturing is the most difficult form of 
co-operation, yet Mr. Boyd has gathered the statistics of forty 
such establishments in this country, the managers of which 
speak of the system in praise. 


478 


Co-operation, 

Building* and Loan Associations. 

Originating in Philadelphia in 1831, building and loan 
associations are now to be found in most of the States. In 
Pennsylvania, it is said, the people have saved through them 
$60,000,000, and nearly 100,000 homes in that city have thus 
been paid for. Commissioner Wright says that, though the 
average age of all these associations is but 6.2 years, there are 
in the United States 5,838 of them, with 1,745,725 shareholders, 
having net assets of $450,667,594. The total profits have been 
$80,664,116. He estimates that by this agency there bave been 
built in this country nearly 400,000 homes. Bradstreet’s re¬ 
ports that the aggregate resources of these co-operative savings 
associations of the country are nearly 60 per cent, of the entire 
assets of all State, savings, loan and trust companies and 
private banks and bankers from whom reports were received 
in 1890. Their deposits were less than 10 per cent, below those 
of the national banks and were more than twice as large as the 
total stock of the national banks. ^ 

On this showing Mr. Boyd comes to the conclusion that in 
building and loan associations co-operation has won its most 
signal success. And yet they are not an unmixed blessing. 
The writer believes that there are two sides to this question— 
in fact, that these associations do not at all represent the true 
principles of co-operation. And the reason is that not all the 
members borrow, and those who do not have a decided ad¬ 
vantage over those who do, in that they get the lion’s share of 
the profits accruing from the usurious rates of interest which 
prevail. The nominal rate of interest is generally 7 per cent., 
but as a usual thing money loaned by building and loan asso¬ 
ciations is put up at auction, the member bidding the largest 
premium getting the loan. The premium is never less than 20 
per cent., often as high as 35 per cent.—and this is always de¬ 
ducted from the loan. Thus a borrower paying interest, on, 
say, $2,000, may not have received in reality more than $1,300, 
at most $1,600. If $1,300, even if the nominal rate of interest is 
only 6 per cent., he really pays at the rate of over 9 per cent. 
If the nominal rate is 7 per cent., he really pays nearly 11 oer 
cent. Under the most favorable circumstances the interest 


479 


Co-operation. 

will be at least one-third higher than prevailing rates. Many 
business men, realizing this, invest largely in the stock of 
building and loan associations, but would not think of borrow¬ 
ing from them. When they do borrow they make a straight 
loan elsewhere, timing the loan so that it comes due after 
their stock matures. 

HOW TO CO- OPERA TE. 

O NE of the greatest, because one of the most active and suc¬ 
cessful and, above all, one of the most unselfish workers in 
the cause of Reform is John A. Wayland, formerly of Green¬ 
field, Ind., and now of Tennessee City, Tenn., where he is the 
guiding spirit of the flourishing co-operative colony of Ruskin. 
His paper, The Coming Nation, all of the profits of which he 
devotes to his philanthropic enterprise, is one of the brightest 
examples of originality in journalism. No man living is better 
qualified to speak on the subject of co-operation. He says: 

I may not lay claim to either the age or wisdom to advise 
my brother workers what to do, but if you will consider some 
of my suggestions relative to your actions and surroundings, 
and talk them over among yourselves, I am sure you will be 
able to find the world brighter to you. You seldom, if ever, 
give any serious thought to bettering your condition except by 
hoping for better wages. Your ideals begin and end with 
“wages/’ and so long as that be true there is no possibility of 
your condition being bettered. You mistrust your fellow 
workmen, never give or receive their confidence, and are afraid 
of trying to help yourselves by mutual exertion. You may 
say you also mistrust the employing classes, but you act on 
their advice and suggestion every time. You say that one of 
you is dishonest, another lazy, and so on, and they have a like 
opinion of you; when, if you were to go to them as a brother, 
take them into your confidence and unfold to them some plan 
you have thought out honestly of making more wealth, or retain¬ 
ing that you do create, I am sure under many ragged coats you 
will find true hearts willing to help you, and minds capable of 
great and noble deeds. It only lacks this expression of confi¬ 
dence to bring out their nobility and yours also. Whoever 
speaks to a workman about bettering his condition except on 
terms that take the larger share while the laborer takes all 
the chances of loss? No one will help you on really just terms. 
You must learn to help yourselves. I never felt this more 
than while reading how thirteen poor weavers and shoemakers 
in Rochdale, England, met and talked over how to better their 


480 Co-operation . 

condition. They did not have a shilling, but they laid away 
two-pence (four cents) a week from their scanty wages and be¬ 
gan to create a fund. In time they got a few more with them. 
At the end of a year they had £28. They bought coffee, 
sugar, tea and oatmeal with it, placed it in a room of one 
of them and sold it to themselves at the retail price, saving the 
dealer’s profit. They did this at night, that they might not 
lose time. This grew, and new members were admitted, but it 
was seven years before the store was finally opened during the 
day. This was the beginning of a system that has to-day 
2,000 retail stores, great warehouses, factories and workshops, 
ships, all owned by the very workers who are employed in 
these institutions, each having only a small share of stock, but 
dividing the profits among them. They do a business of hun¬ 
dreds of millions of dollars annually. It has not only placed 
them above the power of British capitalists to make profits out 
of their toil, but it has done more. It has developed some of 
the noblest, purest characters in England. It has elevated 
thousands of working people from degraded conditions to self- 
reliant men and women. It is an example worthy to be fol¬ 
lowed by all working people. Are you Americans less noble? 
Are you less independent? Have you the mettle to meet and 
overcome your ills? Are you capable of recognizing some of 
the good in you as you do some of the bad in you? Are you 
worthy of better treatment than you are receiving? If you 
are, go to work. Take each other into frankest confidence, 
talk over plans, and when you have carefully considered and 
decided on some course, pursue it with a determination and 
vigor that means success. If some drop by the wayside, stop 
not. Keep your eyes on the goal, your heart true to truth, 
and all the powers of capitalism and its combines will give 
way before you. You have never tried to help yourselves, and 
are therefore helpless. Every obstacle met and overcome will 
make you stronger. There is no victory where therejs noth¬ 
ing to conquer. 

You say you can do nothing for the lack of ready cash? 
More helpless than a Hottentot, who don’t use money. Well, 
I have been studying how to help you out of your troubles, by 
using the means you have learned something about. If you 
were not so ignorantly selfish and suspicious of each other, 
you would not need to adopt such methods, but as you are, I 
will lay down a plan that will give you all the capital you want 
without debt or interest, and which will be strictly in conform¬ 
ity with the letter and spirit of the laws. 

Let a dozen or twenty men and women incorporate a com¬ 
pany under State laws to buy and sell real estate, build 
houses, and engage in merchandising and manufacturing, as 
the incorporators may desire. Capitalize say at $50,000, divided 


481 


Co-operation . 

into 5,000 shares of $10 each. Have the stock certificates neat¬ 
ly engraved, with blank spaces for name of purchaser and for 
signing up by the officers, and have them about the size of a 
bank note. Issue with each certificate, which should represent 
but one share, a blank proxy, or print it on the back and have 
the purchaser sign it and also sign his name on the back in 
the blank for transfer. Then each share will be the property 
of the holder. Then you have 5,000 $10 certificates of stock, 
which will act as so much money if handled in the following 
manner: Pay no officer any salary, so purchasers will know 
that the assets will not be eaten up—that will pay you in the 
future. Then find some man who has a non-productive vacant 
lot and who will take stock for it. Then find some man who 
has stone that he will give for stock, using time that he would 
otherwise be idle. Pay the quarrymen, the masons, the brick- 
makers, the carpenters, the plasterers, the lime-makers, etc., 
allowing each to use material and labor that would not be em¬ 
ployed, and soon you will have a house ready, all done by time 
that would have otherwise been idle and forever lost. When 
the house is ready rent it to one of the stockholders, who will 
make the best tenant, for he will have an interest in the house 
as a partial owner. Then repeat it, and soon the rent of the 
houses will pay an interest on the stock, for there will be no 
more stock issued than is actually represented by the houses. 
Whenever you can pay a dividend of 3 per cent, on these 
shares they will pass at par and you will find them circulating 
from hand to hand like so many $10 bills, and you will have an 
abundance of money to transact your business. You can 
build a store building and gradually accumulate a stock of 
goods, and each stockholder will patronize that store because 
he Is an owner in it. You can also erect factories and employ 
the stockholders. The more people you can get to take this 
stock for labor or material the stronger your corporation will 
be, and the more stable will be the stock. By employing none 
but stockholders, who can thus find a place to create wealth on 
their idle days, you will compel in a measure all the citizens to be 
stockholders. Thus you can transform all your idle labor, idle 
land and idle materials into use and profit, and go on to an un¬ 
limited extent, and by paying 3 per cent, dividends (to your¬ 
selves) you will not grow poorer, as would be the case if the 
interest went to New York. Besides, the money shark could 
not get possession of that stock without giving value received. 
As it now is, he prints stock that costs him nothing and you 
pay him a large interest on that. When you have shown that 
you are entitled to confidence by your management, you can, 
by joining with other such companies, build great factories, or 
even railroads. 


482 


Co-operation. 

Now don’t sit around like children saying you can do noth¬ 
ing,but go to work and use these methods which capitalists use 
to rob you. They can be operated anywhere, but especially in 
small communities where land is cheap and where there is 
building material handy. 

The modus operandi of beginning and operating a store, 
on the principles which have every time been successful, I will 
outline for you as follows: Get many working people to sub¬ 
scribe $50 for one share of stock, tc be paid, if cash down is 
impossible, say $5 at time of subscribing and $1 per week 
thereafter until the stock is fully paid up. Great care should 
be taken to get no quarrelsome or vicious members. Much 
will depend on that. New members should be proposed and 
voted on by the society before admission. As soon as capital 
enough is in hand, rent a building and lay in a stock of goods. 
Get the best and most sincere co-operator as salesman. Neither 
buy nor sell one cenfs worth on credit. Keep an accurate set 
of books showing purchases of stock and sales. Have meet¬ 
ings of all stockholders quarterly, at which officers shall make 
their report, in which shall be specified the amount of funds 
and value of stock possessed by the company. After the rent, 
help, etc., are paid, the profits should be divided as follows: 
5 per cent, on all shares paid up previous to the quarterly 
meeting; the remainder to be divided amongst the members 
in proportion to the amount of their purchases at the store 
during the quarter. This is done by giving each member a 
book in which the amount of each purchase is entered, or by 
having metal or printed chips of 5c, 10c, 25c and $1, and giving 
one of them with each purchase equal to the amount. The 
bookkeeper should aslo tally these. Thus the total sales, if 
nobody but members purchased, would equal the number of 
these checks or books brought in on the last day of the quarter. 
The cash and these chips or books must tally. Sales to out¬ 
siders would swell the profits to shareholders. By this means 
the co-operators buy goods at wholesale prices, plus actual ex¬ 
pense of conducting business. Fifty dollars to a family will 
furnish all the capital needed in business. If shareholders do 
not wish to draw their profits at the end of the quarter, or any 
part of it, and more capital can be used to advantage, pay 
them 4 per cent, on such sums, and the company thus becomes 
a savings bank, as all stores in England are. In this country, 
the company could be organized as a stock company or under 
the building association laws, as thought best, but the stock 
should be so limited as to allow but one or two shares to one 
person, and the company should always stand ready to pay the 
face value for any share of stock, and thus keep control of it 
in desirable hands. All instances where capitalists, except 
such as were sincere co-operators, were permitted to have a 


483 


Co-operation. 

nand in the management, failed of good results. It is desir¬ 
able to own your own store-building, and this can easily be 
done in America, where land is cheap and titles easy of trans¬ 
fer. Mechanics among co-operators can easily build in days 
of idleness, and material can be purchased by loans at 4 per 
cent, as above specified. The business should be under the 
control of a large board of directors. By-laws to bring about 
these results can be easily drafted. I have outlined above 
enough to show you how to proceed. Tracts showing work¬ 
ing people the advantages to be derived by co-operation 
should be circulated, and that will stimulate interest. When 
several stores have been started, by acting together in pur¬ 
chases, great benefits can be obtained that even large retail 
stores cannot have. If twenty stores were in operation they 
could import coffee, sugar and many articles and get them 
cheaper than jobber and wholesaler, whose profits are now 
added. The Rochdale stores do this. 

“Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! 

Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 

Humanity, with all its fears, 

With all the hopes of future years, 

Is hanging breathless on thy fate! 

We know what Master laid thy keel, 

What Workman wrought thy ribs of steel, 

Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 

What anvils rang, what hammers beat, 

In what a forge and what a heat 
Were shaped the anchors of thy hope! 

Fear not each sudden sound and shock, 

’Tis of the wave and not the rock; 

’Tis but the flapping of the sail, 

And not a rent made by the gale! 

In spite of rock and tempest’s roar, 

In spite of false lights on the shore, 

Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea! 

Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee, 

Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears, 

Our faith triumphant o’er our fears, 

Are all with thee,—are all with thee!” 

— Longfellow. 

¥ 

“If I were a young man, I should ally myself with some 
high and at present unpopular cause, and devote my every 
effort to accomplishing its success .”—John G. Whittier. 


^ 11 No people can be self-governing who are denied the right 
to vote ‘yes’ or ‘no’ on every law by which they are to be 
governed 


DIRECT LEGISLATION. 

The Initiative and Referendum. 

T HE Initiative gives the people the power to compel the 
legislature to put in form all such laws as they may initi¬ 
ate or demand by a preliminary vote. 

The Referendum permits all legislative enactments to be 
referred to the people for their ratification by vote before they 
become laws. 

The Imperative Mandate gives the people the right to vote 
out of office at any time men who fail to serve the public or 
who are untrue to their pledges. 

Proportional Representation secures the representation 
of all parties in proportion to their numerical strength. 

Representative Government means government by repre¬ 
sentatives elected by the people, but independent of the people 
after election and empowered to ignore or overrule the people’s 
will. 

Popular Government , or democracy, means government 
of, for and by the people. It will be possible only when all 
officeholders are honest or when the people’s representatives 
are made subject to the people’s will by the adoption of the 
referendum. 

There is a radical difference between a democracy and a 
representative government. Whenever a people are qualified 
for self-government no power on earth can prevent them from 
exercising that right. The American people have been too 
busy “making money” to study their real economic needs, and 
the result is that irresponsible demagogues have made laws 
which have plunged the nation into almost hopeless debt, par¬ 
alyzed its business and impoverished most of the people. The 
voters have several times of late risen in their wrath and 

484 


Direct Legislation . 485 

“ turned the rascals out,” but it was only to elect another set 
of rascals, of different political complexion, perhaps, but equally 
dishonest and equally irresponsible. The so-called “landslides” 
in recent elections, however, indicate that the people have 
begun to think. Soon they will realize that they can control 
their own government only by keeping the legislation in their 
own hands—that they must not delegate their sovereignty to 
representatives or servants, by whatever name they may be 
known. It is only by means of the initiative and the referen¬ 
dum that the people can maintain their supremacy. The gen¬ 
eral adoption of this system is the next step in the world’s 
progress. The initiative and referendum will take the element 
of partisanship out of the settlement of economic questions, 
and this alone is sufficient reason why it should be adopted. 
Suppose the question of tariff were submitted to the people to 
vote on. Members of all parties would vote for it and against 
it, and the majority would decide. It would become a ques¬ 
tion of economics, not a partisan issue, and would be settled 
on its merits. The same with the free coinage of silver, paper 
money, public ownership of railroads, prohibition, and every 
other great question which the gold political parties have 
straddled or evaded. 

But the principal advantage of the referendum is that it 
would do away entirely with the lobby—“the third house.” 
There would be no inducement for any one to bribe the law¬ 
makers. They might sell their individual votes, but these 
would be worthless, as only the people could “deliver the 
goods.” The people would be quick to see the value of the 
franchises and privileges which are now being practically 
given away, to be used by corporations to still further 
enslave the masses. 

Switzerland is the home of the referendum. It is com¬ 
monly believed that that republic has existed for six hundred 
years. The fact, however, is that it is the youngest of repub¬ 
lics. The characteristic features of the government, those 
which make it a republic in fact as well as in name, were insti¬ 
tuted by the present generation. It is the only country in the 
world to-day which has overthrown its plutocracy and which 


486 


Direct Legislation. 

has made it impossible for corrupt politicians to rule the peo¬ 
ple through the representative system. To the principle of 
direct legislation, as carried out by the initiative and referen¬ 
dum, must be ascribed the happy conditions which surround 
its politics. Mr. W. D. McCrackan, author of “The Rise of the 
Swiss Republic,” who has made a special study of the subject, 
has published in the Arena his observations of Swiss politics. 
He finds that, as a result of the referendum, jobbery and 
extravagance are unknown and that politics, as there is no 
money in it, has ceased to be a trade. Office-holders are taken 
from the ranks of citizenship and are invariably chosen 
because of their fitness for the work. The people take an 
intelligent interest in the legislation, local and federal, and are 
fully imbued with a sense of their political responsibilities. 
The Westminster Revieiv, February, 1888, speaking of the 
referendum, expresses this opinion: 

“ The bulk of the people move more slowly than their rep¬ 
resentatives, are more cautious in adopting new and trying 
legislative experiments and have a tendency to reject proposi¬ 
tions submitted to them for the first time. .. . The issue which 
is presented to the sovereign people is invariably and necessa¬ 
rily reduced to its simplest expression and so placed before 
them as to be capable of an affirmative or negative answer. In 
practice, therefore, the discussion of details is left to the rep¬ 
resentative assemblies, while the public express approval or 
disapproval of the general principle or policy embraced in the 
proposed measure. Public attention being confined to the 
issue, leaders are nothing. Collective wisdom judges of mer¬ 
its.” 

In some of the cantons of Switzerland the referendum has 
been in practice since the sixteenth century. As it is now 
employed it was adopted by the canton of St. Gallen in 1830 
and in 1848 it was incorporated in the Swiss federal constitu¬ 
tion. It has been so extended since then that it is now in 
operation in all the Swiss cantons except Freiburg. 

According to the Swiss constitution all amendments thereto 
must be ratified by the Swiss electors before they become 
effective. Other measures, like ordinary enactments, must be 
submitted to a popular vote if a demand is made for such 
submission, written ninety days after their publication. This 


Direct Legislation. 487 

demand must be made by 30,000 voters or by the government 
of eight of the nineteen entire and six half cantons. In Swit¬ 
zerland the referendum has proved to be entirely satisfactory 
as a check upon hasty or class legislation. 

As to the practical working of the referendum in Switzer¬ 
land Albert Bushnell Hart says : 

“A judgment of the referendum must be based on the 
working of the electoral machinery, on the interest shown by 
the voters, and on the popular discrimination between good 
and bad measures. The process of invoking and voting on a 
referendum is simple and easily worked, if not used too often 
Although the assembly has, in urgent cases, the constitutional 
right to set a resolution in force at once, it always allows from 
three to eight months’ delay so as to permit the opponents of 
a measure to lodge their protests against it. Voluntary com 
mittees take charge of the movement, and, if a law is unpopu 
lar, little difficulty is found in getting together the necessary 
30,000 or 50,000 signatures. Only thrice has the effort failed 
when made. When, as in 1882, the signatures run up to 180,000 
the labor is severe, for every signature is examined by the 
national executive to see whether it is attested as the sign 
manual of a voter ; sometimes, in an interested canton, as 
many as 70 per cent, of the voters have signed the demand 
The system undoubtedly leads to public discussion ; newspa 
pers criticise; addresses and counter addresses are issued; can¬ 
tonal councils publicly advise voters, and of late the federal 
assembly sends out manifestoes against pending initiatives. 
The federal executive council distributes to the cantons enough 
copies of the proposed measure so that one may be given to 
each voter. The count of the votes is made by the executive 
council as a returning board. Inasmuch as the Swiss are 
unfamiliar with election frauds, and there has been but one 
very close vote in the national referenda, the count is not diffi¬ 
cult, but there are always irregularities, especially where more 
than one question is presented to the voters at the same time. 

“ What is the effect of the popular votes thus carried out? 
The following table, based on official documents, shows the 
results for the twenty years 1875-1891: 

Passed. Rejected. Total 


1. Constitutional amendments proposed 

by the assembly (referendum obliga¬ 
tory). 1 6 7 

2. Constitutional amendments proposed 

by popular initiative (50,000 signa¬ 
tures)... 2 1 *4 

3. Laws passed by the assembly (refer- 




488 


Direct Legislation. 

endum demanded by 30,000). 14 6 20 

17 13 31 

“Making allowances for cases where more than one ques¬ 
tion has been submitted at the same time, there have been, 
twenty-four popular votes in twenty years. In addition, most 
of the cantons have their own local referenda; in Zurich, for 
example, in these twenty years, more than one hundred other 
questions have been placed before the sovereign people. These 
numbers are large in themselves, but surprising in proportion 
to the total legislation. Out of 158 general acts passed by the 
federal assembly from 1874 to 1892, twenty-seven were sub¬ 
jected to the referendum; that is, about one-sixth are reviewed 
and about one-tenth are reversed. Constitutional amendments 
usually get through sooner or later, but more than two-thirds 
of the statutes attacked are annulled.” 

In his valuable book, “Direct Legislation,” J. W. Sullivan 
thus recounts what the Swiss have done by direct legislation- 

“They have made it easy at any time to alter their canton¬ 
al and federal constitutions,—that is, to change, even radically, 
the organization of society, the social contract, and thus to 
permit a peaceful revolution at the will of the majority. They 
have as well cleared from the way of majority rule every ob¬ 
stacle,—privilege of ruler, fetter of ancient law, power of legis¬ 
lator. They have simplified the structure of government- 
held their officials as servants, rendered bureaucracy impossi¬ 
ble, converted their representatives to simple committeemen- 
and shown the parliamentary system not essential to law-mak, 
ing. They have written their laws in language so plain that a 
layman may be judge in the highest court. They have fore¬ 
stalled monopolies, improved and reduced taxation, avoided in¬ 
curring heavy public debts, and made a better distribution of 
their land than any other European country. They have 
practically given home rule in local affairs to every commun¬ 
ity. They have calmed disturbing political elements;—the 
press is purified, the politician disarmed, the civil service well 
regulated. Hurtful partisanship is passing away. Since the 
people as a whole will never willingly surrender their sover¬ 
eignty, reactionary movement is possible only in case the na¬ 
tion should go backward. But the way is open forward. So¬ 
cial ideals may be realized in act and institution. Even now 
the liberty-loving Swiss citizen can discern in the future a free¬ 
dom in which every individual,—independent, possessed of 
rights in nature’s resources and in command of the fruits of 
his toil,—may, at his will, on the sole condition that he respect 
the like aim of other men, pursue his happiness.” 




Direct Legislation. 489 

Proportional Representation. 

*TpHE term proportional representation has come to be gener- 
ally applied to a method of electing representatives whereby 
the representation shall be in proportion to the votes polled by 
the several parties, or groups of voters, as against the present 
method of electing them from single districts by a plurality 
vote. To effect this end numerous plans have been put forth. 

The cumulative vote allows the voter as many votes as 
there are representatives to be elected and permits him to dis¬ 
tribute them as he pleases among the candidates. This method 
is applied in a limited degree to the choice of members of the 
lower house of the Illinois legislature. Each district elects 
three members, and the voter can cast three votes for one can¬ 
didate, one and a half votes for two, or one vote each for three. 

With the limited or restricted vote the voter has a less 
number of votes than the number of representatives to be 
elected. Thus in the city of Boston the new law allows the 
voter to vote for only seven aldermen on one ticket, and 
declares the twelve candidates receiving the highest vote 
elected. 

The preferential, or, as it is commonly known, the Hare 
vote , allows the voter to cast one ballot upon which he has 
named as many candidates as he sees fit, the candidates named 
being understood to represent the first, second, third, etc., 
choice. The whole number of ballots cast is divided by the 
number of representatives to be chosen, and the quotient is 
the quota, or number of votes required to elect one candidate. 
In counting the ballots the first choices are read first; the can¬ 
didate who receives a quota is declared elected, and the 
remaining votes cast for him are counted for the next name on 
the ballot who is the second choice of the voter. 

The free list, or Swiss vote, allows the voter to vote for a list 
or ticket as we do in this country, and to designate preferences 
on the list. The total vote is divided as in the Hare system to 
get the quota, and the several parties are apportioned repre¬ 
sentatives according to the number of quotas they have. 
The successful candidates are those standing highest on their 


490 Direct Legislation. 

respective lists. This method is now in use in Switzerland for 
the election of representatives. 

The Gove system is a modified form of the Hare method. 
Instead of the voter naming the candidates whom he prefers, 
the candidates themselves before election announce to whom 
they will give their surplus votes. 

The proxy vote is simply an introduction of the corpora¬ 
tion vote into legislative bodies. The candidates who are 
elected in the legislative assembly cast, not their individual 
votes, as at present, but the number of proxies they hold. 

It will be seen that there are three principles involved in 
these several methods, the election by cumulation of votes, the 
election by quotas, and the vote by proxies. The cumulative 
vote was the first to be put into actual service, being used in 
England for the election of members of school boards, etc., and 
in this country in the so-called three-cornered districts for the 
election of members of the legislature. It still has the support 
of quite a number cf persons, but its limitations are now com¬ 
ing to be recognized. John Stuart Mill, who was an advocate 
of the cumulative vote, declared it to be merely a makeshift in 
comparison with the quota system of Hare. The objection to 
the cumulative vote lies in the fact that if the districts are 
small only two parties can obtain representation, and these in 
an arbitrary way, while if the districts be larger, that is, if the 
number of representatives in the district be made greater, the 
waste and uncertainty is apparent. A party may decide to 
vote for four candidates when it has votes enough to elect six; 
or it may try for six when it has votes for only four. In either 
case it is deprived of a part of its just share in the representa¬ 
tion. The proxy system contains some theoretical merits, but 
it is feared that in practice it would not work well at present. 
The tendency to hero-worship would prompt so many voters to 
give their proxies to a few favorites that the real voting 
strength of the assembly would be in the hands of two or three 
men, thus destroying its value as a deliberative body. « 

The real strength of proportional representation lies in 
some form of the quota principle, and the tendency in this, 
country as in Switzerland and Belgium is toward the free list. 


“ The time has come when the railroad corporations will 
either own the people , or the people must own the railroads. 
* * * The Government should own and operate the railroads 
in the interest of the people."—Omaha Platform. 


THE TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM. 

f>TKINSON estimates that into the cost of every article 
* * enters an average of eight per cent, for transportation. 
This alone would make the railroad problem a most important 
one. But many other considerations combine to add to the 
momentum with which the subject is forcing itself upon the 
attention of the American people. The abuses which have 
crept into railroad management in this country, long tolerated 
by the people and unchecked and even encouraged by public 
officers, have now assumed such proportions as to threaten the 
very foundation of free government. 

In his famous work, “The Railroad Question,” which every 
American voter who wishes to be well informed should read 
Hon. William Larrabee, the great railroad Governor of Iowa, 
says: 

“Great discoveries that add rapidly to the wealth of a 
country tend to overthrow a settled condition of things, and 
organized capital and labor, if not restrained by wholesome 
laws and public watchfulness, will ever take advantage of the 
unorganized masses. The people of those regions which the 
railroad stimulus had caused to be settled thrived for years so 
well upon a virgin soil that they gladly divided their surplus 
with the railroad companies. They looked upon the railroads 
as the source of their prosperity and upon railroad managers 
as high-minded philanthropists and public benefactors, with 
whom to quarrel would be an act of sordid ingratitude, and 
they paid but little attention to the means employed by them 
to exact an undue share of their earnings. ^Railroad men did 
whatever they could to foster through their emissaries this 
misplaced adoration. They posed before the public as the 
rightful heirs of the laurels of Watt and Stephenson, insisting 
that their genius, capital and enterprise had built up vast cities 
and opened for settlement and civilization the boundless prai¬ 
ries of the West. These claims have been persistently re¬ 
peated by railroad men, though they are so preposterous that 


492 The Transportation Problem. 

they scarcely deserve refutation. The railroad, gradually de¬ 
veloped by active minds of the past, and greatly improved by 
the inventions of hundreds of men in the humbler walks of 
life, is the common inheritance of all mankind, though no 
class of people have derived greater benefits from it than rail¬ 
road constructors, managers and manipulators. Railroad man¬ 
agers are no more entitled to the special gratitude of the pub¬ 
lic for dispensing railroad transportation at much more than 
remunerative rates than is the Western Union monopoly for 
maintaining among us an expensive and inefficient telegraph ser¬ 
vice. No one believes that the disbanding of the Western Union 
would leave us long without telegraphic communication. In 
like manner railroads will be built whenever and wherever they 
promise to be profitable. If one company does not take advan¬ 
tage of the opportunities offered, another will. That large 
cities have been built up by the railroads is true, but it is 
equally true that these cities by their commerce and manufac¬ 
tures administer to the prosperity of the railroads as much as 
the railroads administer to theirs. Commercial centers in days 
gone by existed without railroads, but railroads could not long 
exist without the stimulating influence of these busy marts of 
trade. The same argument applies with still greater force to 
the agricultural sections of our country, especially the great 
Northwest. The dry-goods merchant might as well boast of 
having clad the public as the railroad manager of having built 
up farming communities by selling to them transportation. 

“ And yet the American people have never ceased to be 
mindful of the conveniences afforded to them by this modern 
mode of transportation. On the contrary, they have been but 
too prone to credit railroad men with being benefactors, when 
they were but beneficiaries, and this liberality of spirit made 
them overlook, or at least tolerate, the abuses which grew pro¬ 
portionately with the wealth and power of the companies. 

“The first railroad acts of England had contemplated to 
make the roads highways, like turnpikes and canals. These 
roads were established by the power of eminent domain. Com¬ 
panies were empowered to build and maintain them and to re¬ 
imburse themselves by the collection of fixed tolls. Had the 
owners of the roads from the beginning been deprived of the 
privilege of becoming carriers over their own lines, the system 
might have so adjusted itself as to become entirely practicable; 
but as they were allowed to compete with other carriers in the 
transportation of passengers and merchandise, they were soon 
able to demonstrate, at least to the satisfaction of Parliament, 
that the use of the track by different carriers was impracticable 
and unsafe. A number of circumstances combined to aid the 
railroads in their efforts to monopolize the trade on their lines. 


The Transportation Problem . 493 

In the first place, when the early railroad charters were granted, 
but few persons had any conception of the enormous growth 
of commerce which was destined to follow everywhere the in¬ 
troduction of railways. The tolls as fixed in the charter soon 
yielded an income out of proportion to the cost of the construc¬ 
tion and maintenance of the roads. Their large margin of profit 
enabled the owners of the roads to transport goods at lower 
rates than other carriers and to thus compel the latter to aban¬ 
don their business. Another defect of the original charters 
worked greatly to the disadvantage of independent carriers. 
They contained no provision as to the use of terminal facilities. 
The railroad companies claimed that these facilities were not 
affected by the public franchise and were therefore their per¬ 
sonal property. This placed independent carriers at a great 
disadvantage and made in itself competition on a large scale 
impossible. These carriers were thus at the mercy of the rail¬ 
road companies for the transportation of their cars, and the 
companies never permitted their business to become lucrative 
enough to induce many to engage in it. It soon became ap¬ 
parent that under the charters granted to the railroad com¬ 
panies such competition as existed on turnpikes and canals 
was out of the question on their roads. In England the great 
abundance of water-ways exercised for many years a whole¬ 
some control over the rates of railway companies, until these 
companies, greatly annoyed by such restraint, absorbed many 
of the larger canals by purchase and made them tributary to 
their systems. These companies have also acquired complete 
control over many harbors. 

“In the United States the people depended from the be¬ 
ginning of the railroad era on free competition for the regula¬ 
tion of railroad charges. This desire to maintain free compe¬ 
tition led to the adoption of general incorporation acts, it being 
generally believed that such competition as obtains between 
merchants, manufacturers and mechanics was possible among 
railroads and would, when allowed to be operative, regulate 
prices and prevent abuses. The remedy was applied freely 
throughout the country, but for once it did not prove successful. 
Stephenson’s saying, that where combination was possible, com¬ 
petition was impossible, was here fully verified. The great in¬ 
genuity of the class of men usually engaged in railroad enter¬ 
prises succeeded in thwarting this policy of commercial free¬ 
dom. The opportunities for those in control of railroads to 
operate them in their own interest regardless of the interests 
of their patrons and stockholders were so great that men of a 
speculative turn of mind were attracted to this business, which 
soon proved a most productive field for them. One road after 
another fell into the control of men who had learned rapidly 
the methods employed to make large fortunes in a short time.” 


494 The Transportation Problem. 

On the subject of watered railroad stocks, Gov. Larrabee 
says: 

“It is a notorious fact that the stock of a large number of 
railroad companies represents little or no value, having either 
been sold at a mere nominal price or been donated as a pre¬ 
mium or bonus to those who purchased a large amount of the 
company’s bonds. In recommending, in his December, 1891, 
annual mssage, government aid for the Nacaragua Canal, 
President Harrison said: ‘But if its bonds are to be marketed 
at heavy discounts and every bond sold is to be accompanied 
by a gift of stock, as has come to be expected by investors in 
such enterprises, the traffic will be seriously burdened to pay 
interest and dividends.’ It is not difficult to surmise to what 
enterprises the President referred. It has for many years been 
a well-settled principle among railroad incorporators that no 
larger assessments should be made upon the stockholders than 
is necessary to float the company’s bonds. A company, for in¬ 
stance, is organized with a capital stock of, say, $1,000,000. 
Five per cent, of this sum, or $50,000, is paid in to defray pre¬ 
liminary expenses. The road is then bonded for perhaps $2,- 
000,000, but as the bonds are sold for only 80 per cent, of their 
face value and as the incorporators allow themselves five per 
cent, for the negotiation of bonds, only $1,500,000 is realized 
for the construction of the road. The incorporators now vote 
to themselves a contract to construct the road for $1,500,000 
and at once sublet it to a contractor who is ready ard anxious 
to build the road for $1,200,000. The incorporators thus realize 
$1,000,000 worth of stock, a portion of which is unloaded upon 
unsophisticated investors, and $300,000 in cash, at an outlay of 
$50,000; and the road, which cost $1,200,000, is made to pay in¬ 
terest and dividends on a total capital of $3,000,000, and this is 
subsequently watered indefinitely if the road proves profitable 
or a consolidation with some other road justifies the belief that 
its earning capacity might be increased. Nor is this an over¬ 
drawn picture. On the contrary, instances might be cited 
where only one-half of one per cent, of the company’s stock 
was paid in by the shareholders.” 

Space does not permit here to go fully into the subject of 
railroad abuses. The reader is referred to the chapter headed 
“A New Study of Political Economy” for further information, 
and those who wish to inform themselves fully on all phases of 
the vast subject should read carefully Gov. Larrabee’s book. 
That the system of railroad corporations as now existing has 
been the source of the gravest evils is everywhere apparent. 
The case of the Camden and Amboy Railroad as related by Gov. 


495 


The Transportation Problem. 

Larrabee is a startling instance of corporate corruption. There 
never was a more flagrant case of public robbery than that of 
the Union Pacific roads. The great Standard Oil monopoly 
would have been impossible but for the power and tendency of 
the railroads to kill competition. Perhaps no other factor has 
been so powerful in bringing about that concentration of 
wealth which is undermining the foundations of our republic. 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX 


Abolition movement. j 6 

Abstracts of title.130 

Accidents and emergencies. .208 
Accidents on railroads,chances 

of. ..185 

Acknowledgment, certificate 

of. 143 

Acre measurements, handy..282 
Adams, John, administration 

of. 72 

Adams, John Quincy. 74 

Administrators, duties of. ... 135 

Advertisers, hints to.181 

Agency and attorney.122 

Agreement, form of.142 

Agreements and contracts. . .115 
Agricultural or mineral lands. 150 

Air, dangers of foul.189 

Alcoholic poisoning.211 

Alexander the Great... .239, 325 

Alexandrian Library. 5 

Alloys, table of.359 

“Almighty Dollar,” origin of. 3 
Amendments to Constitution. 156 

America, discovery of. 5 

American party. 79 

Amsterdam. 7 

Annuity policies.178 

Antidotes for poisons.. .211, 242 

Anti-Federalist party.72 

Anti-Masonic party. 76 

Ants...320 

Ants, to destroy.221 

Apoplexy.194, 211 

Apostles, fate of the.260 

Apothecaries’ weight. . .230, 316 

Arbitration, the laws of.133 

Architects, handy facts for. ..352 

Arch, largest. 9 

Arctic exploration. 97 

Area of principal countries . . 60 

Areas of circles.350 

Army, proportions of. 92 

Aromatic, spirits of vinegar, ,216 


Arrest, exemption from.166 

Arrests without warrant.166 

Arson.... .. 166 

Arthur’s administration...., 82 
Artificial feeding of infants. .206 

Assault and battery.166 

Assignment, form of.142 

Assignment of copyright.... 151 

Assignment of patents.154 

Assignments.130 

Asthma.389 

Attorney, form of power of. . 143 

Australian ballot system.161 

Authors and royalties.107 

Avoirdupois weights.31O 

Bacteria in milk.281 

Bait for game.286 

Balky horse.235 

Balloon, first ascension. 3 

Bank controversy, the. 76 

Banker’s time table.184 

Banking capital.107 

Bankruptcy.173 

Bankrupt, origin of term... .368 
Barbed wire for fences. .235, 321 

Bar bell, the...191 

Bar iron, flat, weight of.348 

Barnabas, St.225 

“Barnburners ” . 78 

Barrels, how to measure.318 

Barrenness.107 

Bartholdi’s statue of Liberty. 10 

Bartholomew, St.260 

Battle, number killed in.92 

Battles of history, decisive... 92 

Bay rum.217 

Bed bugs.212 

Bee-keeping, principles of. . .269 

Bell metal.107 

Bells, largest.5, 107 

Belting, horse power of.. .. .354 

Berries and grapes.297 

Bible, facts about the... .84, 113 
Bibles of the world.243 


496 































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Bigamy.166 

Big trees.183 

Bile.194 

Bilious cholera.203 

Bilious complaints.194, 208 

Bill of exchange.142 

Bill of sale, form of.142, 145 

Bills of sale.132 

Birds, flight of 0 .107 

Birds, life of. 8 

Birmingham wire gauges.. . .349 

Birthdays.367 

Blackberries.298 

Bladder, inflammation of.... 195 

Bleeding from the nose.209 

Blindness.113 

Board and plank measurement 

table.323 

Boarding-houses, inns, etc., 

the law of.131 

Body in flames.208 

Boiler chimneys.359 

Boilers, etc.353 

Boilers, size and capacity of .358 
Boiling, fusing and freezing 

points.189 

Bonds and guaranty.132 

Bonds and stocks.172 

Bond, common form of.142 

Bond for a deed, form of.... 143 
Bookkeeping on the farm... .302 

Books, invention of. 6 

Book-work measurement.285, 370 
Boots and shoes, to make 

waterproof.220 

Boston fire.-..106 

Bowels, inflammation of.195 

Bowels, looseness of.196 

Brain, compression of.210 

Brain, inflammation of.195 

Brain, measurement of.112 

Brain, water on..197 

Brassware, to clean.221 

Breaking and training horses. 223 

Breath, bad.215 

Brick chimneys.358 

49 


Bricks and pottery, color of. .319 
Bricklayers and plasterers, 

facts for.330 

Brick required to construct 

any building.329 

Bridges. 10 

Bridges, railroad. 185 

Bridle, cheap riding.227 

Bridle, safety.225 

Bright’s disease, tomato in. ..388 
Brokerage and commission. ..173 

Bronchitis.202 

Brooders.253, 255 

Brooklyn theatre fire.106 

Brooms, to preserve.221 

Brown, John. 79 

Bruises and wounds.202 

Buchanan’s administration'. .. 79 

Buddhism.168 

Budding and grafting.. ..292,295 

Bug poison. 220 

Building, highest. 12 

Building and loan associations.478 
Building materials, wear and 

tear of.341 

Builders’ estimating tables.. .331 
Builders, handy facts for.329, 352 

Buildings, height of. 98 

Buildings, public, capacity of. 111 

Burglary.166 

Burns and scalds.208 

Burr’s expedition. 73 

Bushel, legal weight of.320 

Business and legal forms.... 142 

Business law in brief.114 

Business letters. 36 

Butter making.279 

Cable, first Atlantic. 5 

Calhoun. 75 

Camel, facts about the.108 

Canary birds, the care of.... 244 

Candle-power.162 

Capital employed in banking. 107 
Capital of U. S., location of.388 
Capitals of principal countries 60 
Capitals, the use of. 36 

n 

i 


































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Capitol building, Washington II 
Capons and caponizing. .247, 256 

Carbon in food.213 

Car, capacity of freight.188 

Carpenters’ work and meas¬ 
uring. 338 

Carpets, kerosene stains in. ..210 

Carpets, to brighten.210 

Carrier-pigeons.168 

Casks, how to measure.318 

Casting harness.229 

Cast iron and timber, strength 

of . ....331 

Cast iron, approximate weight 

of. 347 

Cast iron, assumed weight in 

estimating.346 

Cast iron balls, weight of, etc.346 
Cast iron columns, weight of.345 
Cast iron, round, weight of. .346 

Catacombs. 8 

Catarrh.202 

Cathedrals, height of.98 

Cattle and horses, difference 

between.170 

Cattle, shipments of. 8 

Cattle, to tell age of.241 

Cattle, weight of.310, 318 

Caveats.154 

Cavern, largest... 6 

Cellar, to disinfect a. . ..219, 312 
Cement and lime, weight 

of.258, 343 

Cement, how to use.332 

Cement, tin box.218 

Census, U. S.61 

Centigrade thermometer.188 

Certificate of acknowledg¬ 
ment.143 

Certificates, stock.171 

Chairs and desks for schools, 

sizes of.342 

Chance, the laws of.176 

Change, how to make.182 

Change, terms used on.174 

Charleston, great fire at.174 


Chattel mortgages.129 

Checks paid in New York and 

London.108 

Cheops, pyramid of.109 

Chest weights.191 

Chicago fire. 106 

Chicago,wonderful growth of. 67 

Chicken-pox.194, 207 

Chicks, care of.249 

Chilblains.I 94 > 202 

Chimneys, boiler. 359 

Chimneys, brick...:.358 

Chinese wall. 5 

Choking.207, 210 

Cholera.203 

Cholera, Asiatic.203 

Cholera, English.196 

Cholera, bilious.203 

Cholera, epidemics.113 

Cholera mixture.206 

Christians, number of. 9 

Church, largest. 11 

Churning.279 

Cipher marks, private.182 

Circle, the area of a.349 

Circles, table of areas of.350 

Circles, table of circumference 

of. 351 

Circular arc, length of.367 

Circumference of earth—how 

measured. 58 

Circumference of circles. .. .351 

Cistern measure.318 

Cisterns, capacity of.357 

Cities, nicknames of. 70 

Cities of the U. S., table of.. 61 

City, oldest in U. S. 6 

Civil service.163 

Civil war of 1861-1865. 85 

Civil war, naval battles of. . . 89 
Civil war, principal battles of. 87 

Claims, mining.149 

Clay compromise. 78 

Clay, Henry. 75 

Cleveland’s administration.. . 82 
Climates of the U. S.375 


498 






































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Coal, curious by - products 

from.i^6 

Coal in the U. S.103 

Coal used as fuel. 7 

Cockroaches, to kill.221 

Codicils.134 

Coffee and tea.392 

Coins of the U. S.472 

Coins, foreign, value of.387 

Coin, weight of. 8 

Cold in the head.202 

Cold, severest on record. 97 

Colic.203 

Collection of debts. 181 

Cologne water. 216 

Colors, combinations of.274, 359 
Columns, cast iron, weight of .345 

Commission., .. 173 

Common fever.194 

Compound interest.182 

Compression of the brain. . . .210 

Concussion.210 

Confederacy, Southern. 80 

Conflagrations, great.106 

Congress.155 

Constipation.194, 203 

Constitutional Union party.. . 79 

Constitutional law.155 

Constitution, amendments to. 156 
Constitutions (State), adoption 

of. 72 

Constitution (U. S.), adoption 

of. 72 

Constitution of the U. S.416 

Consumption.194 

Consumption, death from. .. 111 

Contagious diseases.207 

Continental Congress. 71 

Contusions.209 

Convulsions.194, 203 

Contracts and agreements.. .115 

Cooking, loss of meat in.213 

Co-operation.476 

Copernicus, system of. 57 

‘ ‘ Copperheads ”. 80 

Copyright, the law of.151 


Cork, to remove a broken.. .220 

Corliss engine, the. 12 

Corn, how to measure.. 318, 321 

Corns.216 

Corporations.133 

Cost and price marks.182 

Cotton, first raised in U. S.. 5 

Cotton spinning. 3 

Cough, common.194, 203 

Coughs, what causes.. .395 

Cough, whooping.195,207 

Counterfeit money, how to 

detect.183 

Cracks in plaster, to fill. ... .220 

Cremation.108 

Criminal law, points of.166 

Crittenden compromise, the.. 80 
Cross ledges (mining laws)... 150 

Cross ties, per mile.242 

Croup.194, 203 

Crushing strength of stones, 

etc.344 

Cubes and squares, tables of .363 

Currants.301 

Custom-house, largest. 13 

Cuts and wounds.209 

Cylinder, to find capacity of a.356 
Cylindrical cisterns or tanks, 

capacity of.357 

Daguerreotype process, in¬ 
vention of. 6 

Dandruff.216 

Dairymen, points for.275 

Dark Ages. 4 

Davis, Jefferson. 80 

Deaf and dumb asylum, 

largest. 7 

Debts, how to collect.181 

Decimal approximations.347 

Decimal equivalents of frac¬ 
tions . 342 

Declaration of Independence.411 
Deed, form of quit-claim ... 143 

Deed, form of warranty.143 

Deeds.127 

Democratic party, the,.75 


499 




































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Democratic-Republican party, 

the. 72 

Depilatory, a safe... ■.215 

Desert, the largest. 7 

Desks for schools, sizes of, etc.342 

Diamonds, largest.7, 108 

Diarrhoea.203 

Diet in homoeopathy.206 

Digestion of various foods.. .214 

Direct legislation.484 

Dirt in the eye.208 

Discounts, trade..183 

Diseases.194 

Diseases, contagious.207 

Disinfectants.219 

Dislocated thufnb.219 

Distances from New York.. . 141 

Ditches, to level.289 

Dividends. ..171 

Divorce,State laws governing. 137 
Dollar, the standard silver.. . 167 
Domestic and drop measures 317 

Doses for the horse.342 

Doses of medicine. ..212 

Doses in homoeopathy.205 

Doses,safe,of poisonous drugs 213 
Doses, table of proportion, etc.212 

Dower, the right of.137 

Draft, form of. 142 

Draft at sight, form of.146 

Drafts.114, 115, 118 

Drain-pipe, capacity of. .290,334 

Draining...290 

Dred Scott decision, the..... 79 

Dropsy.... 195 

Drowning.210 

Drugs, poisonous.213 

Drunkenness, apparent death 

from.211 

Drunkenness not an excuse for 

crime.166 

Ducks, geese and turkeys. . . .260 

Due bill, form of.146 

Dumb-bell exercise.191 

Durability of woods.360 

Duties, customs.167 


Dwarfs, famous..95 

Dysentery.203 

Dyspepsia.195, 204 

Earth, circumference of, how 

measured. 58 

Earnings.221 

Echo, the most remarkable.. 7 

Eddas, the.243 

Eggs, how to keep fresh.219 

Eggs, to preserve.252 

Eight-hour movement.102 

Elections, State, when held.. 160 

Electoral count act.159 

Electoral College.158 

Electrical terms.380 

Electric eel. 5 

Electricity, storage of.379 

Electricity, the wonders of.. .376 

Electric light.3, 6, 377 

Electric railway.377 

Electric signal, first transmit¬ 
ted . 7 

Electric telegraph, first. 4 

Electricity, velocity of. 6 

Electro-magnetism. 4 

Elevation of continents.108 

Emancipation, proclamation 

of..*.. 80 

Embalming, the process of. .393 

Embezzlement.166 

Emergencies...208 

Empire, largest. 7 

Enamel for shirt bosoms. .. .221 

Endowment policies.178 

Engine, largest stationary... 8 

English cholera.196 

Engravings, transferring. ... 37 

Envelopes, first use of. 4 

Epilepsy ..195 

Erasures in deeds.128 

Errors in speaking. 25 

Eruptions on the face.195 

Erysipelas...195, 207 

Estimating tables, builders’.. 331 

Ether, first used. 4 

Evictions in Ireland. 95 


500 







































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX . 


Evaporation of water from 


fuel.108 

Evolution, the theory of.168 

Exchange, form of bill of. . .. 142 

Executors, duties of.135 

Exemption from arrest.166 

Exemption from taxation. ... 180 

Exercise, physical.191 

Expectation of life.178 

Express, first.'. 4 

Eye, dirt in the.208 

Eye, iron or steel spiculte in 

the.209 

Eye, lime in the.208 

Eyes, care of the.. . .394 

Eyes, inflamed.196 

Factory fires.106 

Fahrenheit’s thermometer. . . 188 
Fainting, hysterics, etc. 195, 210 

Faintness.195 

Families in U. S. . . 179 

Famines of history, the great. 97 

Farm, largest....,. 9 

Farms in U. S.179 

Farms, law relating to, etc.. . 125 

Fasting.108 

Federalist party, the. 72 

Federation of Labor.103 

Felony.166 

Fence posts, to preserve.315 

Fences, barbed wire for.321 

Ferry-boat, largest. 12 

Fever. 39 2 

Fever, common.194 

Fever, intermittent.196 

Fever, typhus.197, 207 

Fevers.204 


Fields and lots, contents of. . 
Fillmore’s administration.... 

Financial panics. 

Finding, the law of. 

Fire company, the first volun¬ 
teer. 

Fire insurance. 

Fire insurance, first office.... 
Fire kindler, economical 


Fires and conflagrations... .106 
Fishes, curious facts about.. .322 

Fits...211 

Five kings, the.243 

Flag and lantern signals.186 

Flag, the American. 7 

Flames, body in.208 

Flannel, shrinkage of..... . .393 

Flatulency.204 

Flax, production of.108 

Flies, to destroy.222 

Floating policies.177 

Floods and inundations.106 

Floors, weight of and load 

upon.342 

Flowers, to keep fresh.221 

Food, carbon in.213 

Food, digestion of....214 

Food for domestic animals, 

value of. 282 

Food, nutrition in various 

articles of.214 

Food, properties of.. .214 

Food, relative value of.213 

Food for stock.319 

Foreign money, value of. .. .387 

Forest fires.106 

Fort Sumter, attack on. 80 

Foul air, dangers of.189 

Franco-German war.108 

Free-soil Democrats. 78 

Freezing mixtures without ice. 190 

Freight car, capacity of.188 

Freight, comparative cost of 

by water and rail. 13 

Frost bite.195 

Fruit, small. 297 

Fruits, degrees of sugar in. . .213 
Freezing, fusing and boiling 

points.189 

Fuel, water evaporation of... 108 

Furs and hides.283 

Gallon, weight of a.356 

Game, bait for.286 

Gases, suffocation from nox¬ 
ious ...211 


3 21 
78 
96 
140 

6 

177 
3 

219 
501 






































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Gas, facts about...336 

Gas, first illumination with... 5 

Gas-pipe, to thaw out.219 

Garfield, James A. s twentieth 

president. 82 

Gauges and their equivalents.348 

Gauges, wire.349 

Geese, ducks and turkeys.. .260 

Gems of knowledge. 3 

Generals commanding U. S. 

army. 83 

General warranty deeds.128 

Geographical nicknames. 69 

German Empire re-established 4 

Ghent, the city of.319 

Giants and dwarfs, famous.. . 95 

Gilt frames, to freshen.220 

Glass.337 

Glass, first transparent. 4 

Glass, panes of, in a box. . . .338 

Glass stopper, to loosen.220 

Glassware, to toughen.220 

Glazing and painting.337 

Globe, to find solidity of... .349 
Globe, to find surface of.. . .349 

Gloves.391 

Glue, test for.-244 

Goats, to tell age of.241 

Gold first discovered. 3 

Gold miners, table for.326 

Gooseberries.301 

Government of principal coun¬ 
tries . 60 

Gout.195 

Grade per mile.322 

Grafting and budding.. .292, 293 

Grafting wax.297 

Grain measure.318 

Grain, shrinkage of.309 

Grand jury.156 

Grand larceny.166 

Grant’s administration. 81 

Grapes.300 

Graphophone, the!.377 

Gravel.195 

Gravity, specific, table of....361 


Greenback party, the. 81 

Grenades, hand.105 

Guaranty, the law of.132 

Gymnastic exercises.191 

Hand grenades.105 

Handy facts for architects and 

builders.352 

Handy facts to settle argu¬ 
ments . 3 

Hanging. 210 

Hairbrushes, cleaning.215 

Hair, color of.107 

Hair invigorator.215 

Hair, removing.215 

Hair, tricopherous for the... 215 

Harness, casting.229 

Harrison, Benj. W., adminis¬ 
tration of.:. 82 

Harrison, W. H., ninth presi¬ 
dent. 77 

Hartford convention, the.... 73 

Harvard College. 3 

Hawks, flight of..'. 3 

Hayes’ administration. 81 

Hay, consumption of.240 

Hay in mow, how to measure.318 

Headache.204 

Health, rules for preservation 

of..200 

Heartburn.204 

Heart, palpitation of the. . . .196 
Heat, excessive in the past.. . 96 
Heat, summer, in various 

countries. 96 

Hebrew race, the.190 

Heirship to property not be¬ 
queathed.135 

Hemorrhage.209 

Hiccough, cure for.206 

Hierarchy, Roman Catholic.. 110 

High water.146 

Hides and furs.283 

Hints to advertisers.181 

Hog cholera, danger of.274 

Hogs, how to sell.268 

Homestead law.164 


502 



































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Homoeopathic remedies.201 

Homoeopathy.201 

Homoeopathy, diet in.206 

Homoeopathy, doses in.205 

Homoeopathy, when intro¬ 
duced. 4 

Horizontal bar exercise.191 

Horse-breeding, points on.. .236 

Horse endurance of the.86 

Horse, how to select a.238 

Horse, man’s power over. ... .228 
Horse, medicines for the. .. .242 
Horse, how to tell age of... .241 
Horse, what a, can draw... .244 


Horse-power.109 

Horse-power necessary to ele¬ 
vate water.356 

Horse-power of belting.354 

Horse-power of steam engines, 

etc.353 

Horse railroad, first built.... 6 

Horses and cattle, differences 

between.170 

Horses, how to train.223 

Horses, kind to breed.235 

Horses, vicious, to reform 0 .. 231 

Horseshoes, first made. 4 

Hotel, largest. 13 

Hotels, the law of.131 

Housekeepers, points for... .313 
How to detect counterfeit 

money.183 

Human body, wonders of. . .390 

Human life, average. 6 

Hurricane, velocity of.. 6 

Hydraulic information,useful.356 

Hygiene. 194 

Hysterics.195* 210 

Ice, strength of.109 

Illegitimate births.109 

Illiteracy, statistics of.101 

Impeachment.155 

Import duties in various coun¬ 
tries .101 

Incubators and brooders.253 

Indian country, the.... 99 

5 


Indian, the American.101 

India rubber.109 

Indelible ink.219 

Indentures.367 

Independence, declaration of. 71 

Independence, war of. 72 

Indigestion.195, 204 

Indorsement of notes.119 

Infamous crimes in law.166 

Infants, artificial feeding of. .206 
Inflamed eyes.196 


Inflammation of the bowels. . 195 
Inflammation of the bladder. 195 
Inflammation of the brain... 195 
Inflammation of the kidneys. 195 
Inflammation of the liver. . . . 195 
Inflammation of the lungs. . . 195 
Inflammation of the stomach. 196 


Inflammatory sore throat. ... 196 

Influenza.196 

Initiative and referendum.. . .484 

Ink, indelible.219 

Inks, printing.;.350 

Inland seas, area of, etc.141 

Inns, hotels and boarding¬ 
houses, law of.131 

Insanity, causes of.113 

Insects, to destroy.222 

Installment note.146 

Insurance.177 

Insurance company, largest.. 7 

Interest accumulation.182 

Interest laws.. . 147 

Interest rules.183 

Interest and usury.437 

Interesting facts of science, 

etc.'.107 

Interlineations in deeds.128 

Intermittent fever.196 

Internal revenue.180 

Inter-state commerce law. ...175 

Inundations.174 

Invention, recent progress of. 396 
Ireland, evictions in. 95 


Iron —See bar iron , cast iron 
and ivrought iron. 




























































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Iron and wood, weight of.. . .343 

Iron ore, first discovered. 6 

Itch.196 

Jackson’s administration. 75 

James, St.260 

Jaundice.196 

Jefferson,Thomas, administra¬ 
tion of. 73 

Jefferson’s political policy. .415 
Jesuits, order of, founded.. . . 4 

Johnson’s administration..,. 81 

John, St.260 

Johnstown flood.106 

Joint life policies..178 

Jude, St.260 

Kerosene first used for illumi¬ 
nating . 5 

Kicking horses.232, 234 

Kidneys, inflammation of the. 195 

Knights of Labor.103 

Knives, first used. 6 

Know-Nothings. 79 

Koran, the.243 

Labor congress, national.... 103 

Labor, Federation of.103 

Labor, organized, in the U.S.. 102 

Lake Superior.. II 

Landlord and tenant........ 123 

Land measure.. . . .319 

Land measure (U. S.).164 

Land monopoly.100 

Lambs, early.266, 267 

Lamp chimneys, to toughen. .220 

Language, changes in.390 

Languages,name of God in 48. 13 

Languages, number of. 3 

Lantern signals.186 

Larceny, grand and petty. . . 166 

Lavender water.217 

Law (business) in brief.114 

Law, constitutional. .155 

Law, criminal.166 

Law relating to farms, etc... 125 

Laws of chance.176 

Lead, compression of. 56 

Leads and slugs,.....369 


Leads for book-work.371 

Leads for newspapers.370 

Lead-pipe, sizes and weights 

of....... .*. . 3 ^j 

Lead, sheet, weight of.344 

Leap years. 8 

Leases .123 

Lease, short form of.144 

Legacies.145 

Legal advice...114 

Legal forms.142 

Legal tender.450 

Leipsic fair, the.108 

Leprosy.109 

Letter combinations.105 

Letter writing. 36 

Liberty, Bartholdi’s statue of. 10 

Liberty party, the. 77 

Libraries, statistics of. 9 

Library, first American. 6 

Library, largest. 8 

Lien laws.126 

Life, average for professions. 107 

Life, average of.110 

Life insurance, first. 4 

Lightning and sunstroke. . . .211 

Light, velocity of. 5 

Limitation, statutes of..'... . 147 
Limited payment life policies.178 

Lime, weight of.343 

Lincoln’s administration. 80 

Lincoln, assassination of.... 4 

Lisbon earthquake.375 

Liver complaint.194 

Liver, inflammation of the. . . 195 

Load upon floors.342 

Locomotive, cost of a.185 

Locomotive, largest. 10 

Locomotive whistle signals.. . 187 
Logs reduced to inch board 

measure.325 

Loisette’s system of memory. 14 

London fire.106 

Looseness of the bowels.196 

Lots and fields, contents of. .321 
Louisiana purchase. 73 


504 






































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Puke, St. 

260 

Mirrors, glass, first made.... 

5 

Lumber, etc., weight of. 

340 

Misquotations. 

385 

Lumber, to find quantity of, 

Mississippi river. 

12 

in a log. 

322 

Missouri compromise. 

74 

Luminous paint. 

■ 37 

Mixing inks and paints. 

359 

Lungs, inflammation of the. . 

195 

Mold, to prevent. 

219 

Madison’s administration. . . . 

73 

Money, functions of. 

455 

Magna Charta. 

409 

Money, the philosophy of... . 

443 

Mails, money lost in. 

155 

Money, volume of. 

457 

Majority, age when attained. 158 

Money, Roman, in New Testa- 


Manhattan, origin of name. . 

332 

ment. 

,103 

Mankind, races of. 

59 

Money, time in which it 

Mansion, costliest... 

11 

doubles. 

182 

Man, tallest. 

. 8 

Money, value of foreign. 

.244 

Marble slabs, weight of. 

343 

Monkey-wrench, the. 

■ 9 

Marine insurance. 

179 

Monopoly, land. 

100 

Mark, St. 

,260 

Monroe doctrine. 

■ 74 

Marriage and divorce. 

137 

Monroe, James, administra 


Married women, rights of. . . . 

139 

tion of. 

• 74 

Masonry, weight of. 

343 

Mouth-wash. 

.215 

Match, first lucifer. 

. 5 

Monuments, height of.. 

. 98 

Matthew, St. 

,260 

Monument, highest. 

8 

Matthias, St. 

,260 

Mormons, arrival of. 

6 

Mayhem. 

t66 

Mortgage, form of.. 

.143 

Measles. 196, 204, 

207 

Mortgages. 

. 129 

Measurement, type, by square 

Mosquito-bites, to prevent.. 

.314 

inches . 

371 

Mosquitoes, to keep out.... 

2 T I 


Measures of capacity.319 

Measures, the meaning of.. .317 
Meat, loss of, in cooking. . . .213 

Mecklenburg declaration,the..409 

Medicine and hygiene.194 

Medicine, doses of.212 

Medicines for the horse.242 

Meerschaum. 5 

Memory, Loisette’s system of. 14 

Menstruation.196 

Metals, combinations of.359 

Metric tables, handy.317 

Metric weights and measures..316 

Mexico, war with. 5 » 77 

Militia, State.156 

Mind cure, the.169 

Mineral lands (mining laws).. 150 
Mines, largest and deepest... 10 
Mining laws.. „.H 9 


Moths, to get rid of.212 

Mottoes of the States. 68 

Mountain, highest. 12 

Mountains, highest range.... 3 

Mrs. Partington, the original.317 

Mucilage.217 

Mumps.196, 205 

Murder, degrees of.166 

Musical notes first used. 5 

Mustache grower. .216 

Nails and spikes.327 

Nails required for different 

kinds of work.328 

Names of the States. 67 

Napoleon 1 . 3 

Napoleon on usury.437 

Native American party. 77 

Natural bridge, highest. 6 

Naturalization.1 57 


505 







































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Natural sines, etc.368 

Nature’s wonders, some of.. .113 
Navy, the, in the civil war... 90 

Nebular hypothesis. 58 

Needles first used. 6 

Negotiable paper.. . 104, 105, 118 

Nervousness.196 

Nettlerash.205 

Newspaper measure,standard.369 

Newspapers. 8 

Newspapers in U. S. 9 

Newspapers, numbers of.... 103 

Newspapers, sizes of.371 

Newspaper type measurement.376 

New York fire.106 

Niagara Falls.8, 325 

Niagara, horse-power of.109 

Nicknames of cities. 7 ° 

Nicknames of States. 69 

Nicotine, proportion in to¬ 
bacco.109 

Nijni-Novgorod, the fair of.. 108 

Non-forfeiting policies.178 

Nose, bleeding from the.209 

Note, joint promissory.145 

Note not negotiable.145 

Note payable at bank .145 

Note payable by installments. 146 
Note payable on demand .... 145 

Note with surety.145 

Note, promissory.145 

Notes and negotiable 

paper.114, 115, 118 

Nullification ordinance. 75 

Obelisks, Egyptian. .377 

Ocean, depth of the.154 

Ocean passage, quickest. 8 

Oceans, dimensions of.141 

Odor, to remove the, from a 

vial.210 

Open policies.179 

Opium.. hi, 221 

Order, 250 points of.104 

Oregon, reoccupation of. 77 

Organized labor in the U. S. . 102 
Overflows, great.106 


Ox, largest. 11 

Painting and glazing.337 

Paint, luminous. 37 

Paint, to remove from window 

glass.220 

Paints, mixing. 359 

Palpitation of the heart.196 

Panics, great financial. 96 

Paper, invention of. 3 

Paper money, circulation of. . 7 

Paris. 8 

Park, largest in U.S. 6 

Park, the most extensive.... 6 

Parliamentary law.104 

Partington, the original Mrs. .317 

Partnership, the law of.120 

Paste, a brilliant.217 

Paste, acid-proof.218 

Paste, a perpetual. ....217 

Paste, a strong.217 

Paste, a sugar.217 

Paste, paper and leather.. . .217 
Paste for papering boxes. . . .216 

Paste for printing-office.218 

Paste for scrap-books.217 

Paste to fasten cloth on wood.218 

Patents, how to obtain.337 

Paul, St.'..337 

Peanuts.314 

Pens, first steel. 5 

Perjury.166 

Personal liberty laws. 78 

Philip, St.260 

Phonograph, invention of.... 3 

Phonograph, the.376 

Photographs first produced.. 4 

Physical exercise.191 

Pianaforte, invention of. 6 

Piano polish.380 

Pierce’s administration. 78 

Pig-sty, a portable.274 

Piles.196, 205 

Pipe, block tin.334 

Pipe, diameter and capacity 

, of . 356 

Pipe, lead, sizes of, etc.333 


506 







































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Pitch, lake of.321 

Plague, London. 3 

Plagues, remarkable. 97 

Planetary system.57 

Plank measurement table... .323 

Plants to an acre.324 

Plasterers, facts for.330 

Plastering, putty for.330 

Plate glass.337 

Plato’s definition of man. . . .357 
Plumbers, etc., tables for. . . .333 

Poetry, gems of.381 

Poison for bugs.222 

Poisons and their antidotes. .211 

Polish for shirt bosoms.211 

Political history (U. S.). 71 

Polk’s administration. 77 

“PoorMan’s Region”.259 

Popes.110 

Popular vote for presidents. . 161 
Population of American cities. 61 
Population of principal coun¬ 
tries . 68 

Population of States. ....... 61 

Population of U. S. 61 

Population of U. S., increase 

of. 61 

Postage stamps first used.... 3 

Postal information.386 

Post-office, first established.. 5 

Potatoes, early and late.257 

Potatoes under straw.314 

Pottery. 4 

Poultry-houses.250 

Poultry industry, extent of.. .245 
Poultry-raising, all about. . . .245 

Poultry, 300 facts about.258 

Power of attorney, form of.. 143 
Power, table of transmission 

of, by wire ropes.355 

Practical calculations.318 

Preferred stock.17 1 

Prescriptions.197 

Preserving wood.380 

Presidency, legal qualifica¬ 
tions for the.156, 159 


Presidential election, the. ...158 
Presidential election statistics. 161 

Presidential succession.159 

Presidents of the U. S. (table). 83 
Pressure of the atmosphere. .356 

Pressure of water.356 

Price and cost marks.182 

Prickly heat, cure for.216 

Printers, useful information 

for.369 

Printing, chronology of. 5 

Printing inks, mixing of.359 

Printing-office paste.218 

Pruning, grafting, etc.292 

Promissory note, form of.... 145 
Pronunciation, rules of.. . .30, 31 

Property, the laws of.431 

Public debt, principal of the. 98 
Public lands, titles to, how 

acquired.164 

Public schools, first. 4 

Publishers, useful information 

for.369 

Pulleys for physical exercise.. 193 

Pulse of animals.310 

Pump cylinders.356 

Pumps, efficient working of. .357 

Pumps, double-acting.357 

Punctuation.35 

Pungents, volatile salts for.. .216 

Putty for plastering.330 

Pyramid of Cheops.109 

Pyramid of Ghizeh. II 

Quinine for colds.391 

Quinsy.196 

Quit claim deed, form of.... 143 

Rabbits.209 

Rabbits, to keep away.310 

Races of mankind. 59 

Railroad construction table. .328 
Railroading, twenty points on 

American.185 

Railroads and transportation. 185 

Railroad signals.186 

Railroads, speed on.187 

Railways, miles of, in U. S. . 185 


507 




























































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


kail way to the Sun.. 83 

Rails required per mile (table).328 

Rails, steel, duration of.185 

Ramphorhyncus, the.332 

Rape as a sheep feed.265 

Raspberries.297 

Rats, destruction of.221 

Rats, how to get rid of.105 

Razor-strop paste.216 

Reaumur thermometer.188 

Recipes, etc.215 

Reconstruction (Southern).77, 81 
Redwood trees of California.. 183 

Referendum, the. .484 

Rein-catching.235 

Religion in America .99 

Religious denominations.no 

Republican party, the. 72 

Reserve (insurance).178 

Returning board system, the. 81 

Rheumatism.196 

Rickets.197 

Rifle ball, velocity of. 4 

Right of dower, the.. . 137 

Rights of married women. ... 139 

Ringworm.197 

Rivers, flow of. 5 

Rivers, longest. 12 

Road, the rule of the.380 

Roman Catholic hierarchy... no 

Roman money.103 

Rome founded. 3 

Roofers, hints for.335 

Ropes, strength of.312 

Ropes, to preserve....;.315 

Rose water.216 

Rothein.207 

Royalties paid authors. .... .207 

Rubber, India.109 

Runaway horses . .232 

Sacred College, the.no 

Safe doses cf poisonous drugs.213 

Safety bridle, to make.225 

Salt for live stock.312 

Salts, volatile. 216 

San Francisco, great fire at.. 106 


San Marino. 343 

Santiago, great fire at.106 

Savings accumulations.182 

Scalds and burns.208 

Scantling and timber measure.324 

Scarlet fever.197, 207 

School, largest. 12 

Scrofula. 197 

Scurvy.197 

Seas, inland, largest. 3 

Seattle, great fire at. . ..106 

Secession, first proposer of.. .259 
Seeds, quantity required for 

planting...315, 320 

Serfdom in Austria. 94 

Serfdom in Russia. 94 

Serfs, German. 95 

Settlement, first in America.. 9 

Seven sages. 8 

Seven wise men, sayings of the. 326 
Seven wonders of the world . . 9 

Sewing machine,first patented 5 

Shampoo, liquid.215 

Shaving compound.216 

Sheep-breeding for profit.. . .261 

Sheep, to tell age of.241 

Shepherds, points fpr.261 

Shingles, number required in 

a roof.335 

Ship, largest. .. 9 

Shirt bosoms, enamel for. . . .221 

Shocks, violent.210 

Shoes, to make waterproof.. .220 

Short interest rules.. 183 

Short rates, insurance... 1 77 

Shoulders, round, to straighten 394 

Sickness, ratio of.no 

Signal Service, U. S.374 

Silver question, the.463 

Silver, a wash for cleaning.. .220 

Sines, tangents, etc.368 

Single tax, the.'.387 

Sinks and drains, to disinfect.219 
Skull, measurement of the. .. 112 

Skylights.337 

Slates, number of, per square.335 


508 





































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Slavery and serfdom. 93 

Slavery, first established.... 5 

Slavery in the U. S. 94 

Sleeping-cars, cost of.185 

Sleeping-cars, first in use.... 185 

Smallpox...197, 207 

Smallpox epidemics.107 

Smelling salts, inexhaustible. 216 

Smoke stains, to remove.218 

Soap, first manufactured .... 4 

Solar system, the. 57 

Sore throat, inflammatory. .. 196 

Sound, velocity of. 3 

Sparrow, the English. 70 

Specie basis.446 

Specific gravity of various sub¬ 
stances .361 

Spectacles, invention of. 4 

Speed on railroads.187 

Spelling, short rules for. 35 

Spherical shells, to find weight 

of .... 346 

Spikes and nails. .327 

Spikes, railroad.328 

Spirits, when “proof” .112 

Sprains. 205 

Shrubs, plants or trees to an 

acre.3 I 9 

Squatter sovereignty. 79 

Squares and cubes, tables of. 363 

Stage favorites.165 

Stains, to remove.218 

Stains, to remove, from fur¬ 
niture .220 

Standard time.167 

Starch, percentage of, in food.213 
State elections, when held ... 160 

States, mottoes of. 68 

States, names of. 67 

States, nicknames of. 69 

Statutes of limitations.147 

Steamboating.187 

Steam engine, first. 6 

Steam engines. 353 

Steamer, first to cross Atlantic 4 
Steam piston, to find area of.356 


Steel rails, duration of.185 

Steel, tensile test of.361 

Stephens, Alexander H.80 

Sterility.107 

St. John, great fire at.106 

Stock investments explained. 171 

Stomach-ache.203 

Stomach, inflammation of the. 196 

Stock, food for.319 

Stolen property.166 

Stones, weight of.343 

Storm clouds, velocity of. .. . 4 

Storm, velocity of. 5 

Stovepipe, to clean.220 

Strawberries.299 

Strength,comparative scale of. 110 

Strike, first in U. S.102 

St. Vitus’ dance.197 

Suffocation.211 

Sugar-cane, first cultivated.. 5 
Sugar, degrees of, in fruits..213 
Summer heat in various coun¬ 
tries . 96 

Sunday-school, first estab¬ 
lished . 6 

Sun jumps a day, place where. 176 

Sunstroke.211 

Surveying.288 

Suspension bridge, largest. .. 7 

Synonyms and antonyms.... 38 

Tacks.327 

Tangents, etc.368 

Tanks, capacity of.357 

Tanning.286 

Taxes.180 

Taylor’s administration. 78 

Tea and coffee.392 

Teething.205 

Teeth, removing tartar from 

the.215 

Telegraph, first in operation.. 5 

Telephone, the.376 

Telescope, invention of the.. 4 

Temple, largest. n 

Tensile and transverse 
strength.361 


509 

































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Tensile strength of stones, etc.344 

Tensile test of steel...361 

Term life policies.178 

Terms used on ’Change.174 

Texas. 12 

Texas, annexation of. 77 

Theater, first in U. S. 5 

Theosophy.13, 168 

Thermometer, facts about the. 188 
Thermometer, how to test a. .219 
Thermometric scales, com¬ 
parison of.188 

Thomas, St.260 

Throat, inflammatory sore ... 196 

Thrush.197 

Thumb, dislocated.209 

Ticdouloureux.197 

Ties, cross, per mile (table). .328 

Tilden, Samuel J. 81 

Tile, size of.. .290 

Timber and cast iron, strength 

of. 33 1 

Timber measure (table).324 

Timber rules.322 

Timber, to tell soundness of. .322 
Time difference between New 
York and foreign cities.... 375 

Time measure.316 

Time, standard.167 

Time table, bankers’.184 

Tin box cement.217 

Tin, roofing.336 

Tints, preparation of.359 

Title, abstracts of.128 

Titles in Great Britain. 7 

Titles of nobility.155 

Tobacco, discovery of. 7 

Tobacco, proportion of nico¬ 
tine in.109 

Toothache.197 

Toothache cure.215 

Toothache tincture.215 

Tooth paste.215 

Tooth powder.215 

Tories. 72 

Torpedo signals.186 


Trade discounts.... .183 

Trademarks, the law of.152 

Trade secrets, etc.215 

Trades-unions.102 

Train management.185 

Transferring engravings..... 37 
Transferring of property.. . . 137 

Transit insurance.179 

Transportation question, the. .491 

Transverse strength.361 

Trappers, hints for.283 

Trapper’s secret, the.286 

Treason.155 

Trees, how to measure.318 

Trees of California, large.... 183 
Trees or plants to an acre . .319 

Tree, the largest. 7 

Tricopherous for the hair... .215 

Trillion, a, what it is.180 

Trip around the world.148 

Troops in civil war. 85 

Troy weights.......316 

Trumbull, Hon. Lyman.431 

Trust deeds.128 

Try Pitikes, the.243 

Tugs, capacity of.109 

Tunnel, longest. 7 

Tunnel, longest railway.185 

Tunnels (mining law).150 

Turkeys, ducks and geese. . . .260 

Turpentine, virtues of.217 

Tyler’s administration. 77 

Type, body, how to estimate 

for.369 

Type measurement by square 

inches.371 

Type, etc., weight of.369 

United States political history. 71 
United States, population of.. 61 

University, the largest. 5 

Upas tree.341 

Useful hydraulic information.31:6 

Usu 7 . 437 

Vaccination and smallpox.. . . 107 

Valley of death, the.7, 341 

Valley of the upas tree..... .341 


510 







































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX . 


Van Buren’s administration. . 76 
Vegetables, how to measure..318 

Ventilating a room.309 

Vermin, to destroy.221 

Veto, presidential.155 

Violent shocks.210 

Volatile salts for pungents.. .216 

Wampum.444 

Wars, cost of recent.91 

Wars of the U. S .. 84 

Washington, George, admin¬ 
istration of. 72 

Washington monument. 12 

Water, when to drink.394 

Wealth, how it accumulates. .441 
Wear and tear of building 

materials. 341 

Weather signals..374 

Wedding anniversaries.367 

Weeds, to kill.. 

Weight in cubic feet of vari¬ 
ous substances.361 


Weight of type., etc.369 

Weight of floors, etc.342 

Weights and measures.316 

Weights and measures, handy.231 

Weights, miscellaneous.343 

What’s in a name?. 34 

When a man becomes of age. 158 

Whigs. 72 

Whisky ring trials.. 81 

Whites.197 

Whooping cough... 195, 205, 207 

Will, form of.144 

Wills.133 

Wilmot proviso, the. 78 

Wind and weather signals.. .374 

Window glass.337 

Windows, glass, first used... 4 

Wire gauges.349 

Wire, longest span of. 8 

Wire ropes, table of transmis¬ 
sion ...... • 



































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